15 Chemical Kinetics

Chemical kinetics: the study of reaction rate, a quantity

conditions affecting it,
the molecular events during a chemical reaction (mechanism), and
presence of other components (catalysis).
Factors affecting reaction rate:
Concentrations of reactants
Catalyst
Temperature
Surface area of solid reactants or catalyst
What quantities do we study regarding chemical reactions?
15 Chemical

Reaction Rate Defined

Reaction rate: changes in a concentration
of a product or a reactant per unit time.
[ ]
Reaction rate =
t

[]

concentration

change

[ ]
t

Define reaction rate and explain

Average reaction rate
Instantaneous reaction rate
(2 tangents shown)
Initial reaction rate

t
15 Chemical

Expressing reaction rates

For a chemical reaction, there are many ways to express the reaction
rate. The relationships among expressions depend on the equation.
Note the expression and reasons for their relations for the reaction
2 NO + O2 (g) = 2 NO2 (g)
[O2]
1 [NO]
1 [NO2]
Reaction rate = = =
t
2
t
2 t
Make sure you can write expressions for any reaction and figure out
the relationships. For example, give the reaction rate expressions for
2 N2O5 = 4 NO2 + O2
How can the rate expression be unique
and universal?
15 Chemical

Calculating reaction rate

The concentrations of N2O5 are 1.24e-2 and 0.93e-2 M at 600 and
1200 s after the reactants are mixed at the appropriate temperature.
Evaluate the reaction rates for
2 N2O5 = 4 NO2 + O2
Solution:
(0.93 1.24)e-2
0.31e-2 M
Decomposition rate of N2O5 = =
1200 600
600 s
= 5.2e-6 M s-1.
Note however,
rate of formation of NO2 = 1.02e-5 M s-1.
rate of formation of O2 = 2.6e-6 M s-1.
Be able to do this type problems
15 Chemical

The reaction rates are

expressed in 3 forms

Determine Reaction Rates

To measure reaction rate, we measure the concentration
of either a reactant or product at several time intervals.
The concentrations are measured using spectroscopic
method or pressure (for a gas). For example, the total
pressure increases for the reaction:

barometer

2 N2O5 (g) 4 NO2 (g) + O2(g)

Because 5 moles of gas products are produced from 2
moles of gas reactants. For the reaction
CaCO3 (s) CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
The increase in gas pressure is entirely due to CO 2
formed.
15 Chemical

Differential Rate Laws

Dependence of reaction rate on the concentrations of reactants is
called the rate law, which is unique for each reaction.
For a general reaction, a A + b B + c C products
the rate law has the general form
order wrt A, B, and C, determined experimentally
reaction rate = k [A]X [B]Y [C]Z
the rate constant
For example, the rate law is
rate = k [Br-] [BrO3-] [H+]

for

5 Br- + BrO3- + 6 H+ 3Br2 + 3 H2O

Use differentials
to express rates

The reaction is 1st order wrt all three reactants, total order 3.
15 Chemical

Variation of Reaction rates and Order

2nd order, rate = k [A]2
rate
First order, rate = k [A]
k = rate, 0th order

[A] = ___?

[A]

The variation of reaction rates as functions of concentration for

various order is interesting.
Mathematical analysis is an important15
scientific
tool, worth noticing.
Chemical

Differential Rate Law determination

Estimate the orders and rate constant k from the results observed for the
reaction? What is the rate when [H2O2] = [I-] = [H+] = 1.0 M?
H2O2 + 3 I- + 2 H+ I3- + 2 H2O
Exprmt
1
2
3
4

[H2O2]
0.010
0.020
0.010
0.010

[I-]
0.010
0.010
0.020
0.010

[H+]
0.0050
0.0050
0.0050
0.0100

Initial rate M s-1

1.15e-6
2.30e-6
2.30e-6
1.15e-6

Learn the strategy to determine the rate law from this example.
Figure out the answer without writing down anything.
Solution next

15 Chemical

Differential Rate Law determination - continue

Estimate the orders from the results observed for the reaction
H2O2 + 3 I- + 2 H+ I3- + 2 H2O
Exprmt
1
2
3
4

[H2O2]
0.010
0.020
0.010
0.010

[I-]
0.010
0.010
0.020
0.010

[H+]
0.0050
0.0050
0.0050
0.0100

Initial rate M s-1

1.15e-6
2.30e-6 1 for H2O2
2.30e-6 1 for I1.15e-6 0 for H+

1.15e-6 = k [H2O2]x [I-]y [H+]z

1.15e-6 k (0.010)x(0.010)y(0.0050)z
exprmt 1
----------- = ------------------------------------2.30e-6 k (0.020)x(0.010)y(0.0050)z
exprmt 2
x=1

15 Chemical

1
1
x
---- = --2
2

( )

Differential Rate Law determination - continue

Other orders are determined in a similar way as shown before.
Now, lets find k and the rate
Thurs, rate = 1.15e-6 = k (0.010)(0.010) from exprmt 1
k = 1.15e-6 M s-1 / (0.010)(0.010) M3 = 0.0115 M-1 s-1
And the rate law is therefore,
d [H2O2]
k
rate = = 0.0115 [H2O2] [I-]
dt

a differential rate law

total order 2

The rate when [H2O2] = [I-] = [H+] = 1.0 M:

The rate is the same as the rate constant k, when concentrations of
reactants are all unity (exactly 1), doesnt matter what the orders are.
10
15 Chemical

Differential Rate Law determination continue

The reaction rate d[H2O2]/dt = 0.0115 [H2O2] [I], for
H2O2 + 3 I- + 2 H+ I3- + 2 H2O
What is d[I]/dt when [H2O2] = [I] = 0.5?
Solution: Please note the stoichiometry of equation and how the rate changes.
d[I]/dt = 3 d[H2O2]/dt = 3* 0.0115 [H2O2] [I]
= 0.0345 * 0.5 * 0.5
= 0.0086 M s-1
In order to get a unique rate constant k, we evaluate k for the
reaction
a A + b B product
this way
rate = -1/a d[A]/dt = -1/b d[B]/dt = k [A]x [B]y
Note the reaction rate expression and15
theChemical
stoichiometry of equation.

11

Differential Rate Law determination - continue

From the following reaction rates observed in 4 experiments, derive the
rate law for the reaction
A + B + C products
where reaction rates are measured as soon as the reactants are mixed.
Expt
[A]o
[B]o
[C]o
rate

1
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.100

2
0.200
0.100
0.100
0.800

3
0.200
0.300
0.100
7.200

4
0.100
0.100
0.400
0.400

This example illustrates the strategy to determine, and a

reliable method to solve rate-law experimentally.
15 Chemical

Solution next
12

Differential Rate Law determination - continue

From the following reaction rates, derive the rate law for the reaction
A + B + C products
where reaction rates are measured as soon as the reactants are mixed.
Expt
1
2
[A]o
0.100
0.200
[B]o
0.100
0.100
[C]o
0.100
0.100
rate
0.100
0.800
Assume rate = k [A]x[B]y[C]z
Therefore 8 = 2x
log 8 = x log 2
x = log 8 / log 2
=3

3
0.200
0.300
0.100
7.200

4
0.100
0.100
0.400
0.400

order
3 from expt 1 & 2
2 expt 1, 2 & 3
1 expt 1 & 4

0.800 k 0.2x 0.1y 0.1z

----- = ---------------------0.100 k 0.1x 0.1y 0.1z
15 Chemical

13

Integrated Rate Laws

concentrations as functions of time
One reactant A decomposes in 1st or 2nd order rate law.
Differential rate law

Integrated rate law

d[A] / dt = k

[A] = [A]o k t

d[A]
= k [A]
dt

[A] = [A]o e k t or ln [A] = ln [A]o k t

d[A]
= k [A]2
dt

1
1
= k t
[A]
[A]o

[A] conc at t
[A]o conc at t = 0

Describe, derive and apply the integrated rate laws

Learn the strategy to determine rate-law
15 Chemical

14

Concentration and time of 1st order reaction

Describe the features of plot of [A] vs. t and ln[A] vs. t for 1st order
reactions. Apply the technique to evaluate k or [A] at various times.
[A]

ln[A]
ln [A] = ln [A]o k t

[A] = [A]o e k t

t
t

t
15 Chemical

15

Half life & k of First Order Decomposition

The time required for half of A to decompose is called half life t1/2.
Since

[A] = [A]o e k t

or

When

t = t1/2, [A] = [A]o

Thus

ln [A]o = ln [A]o k t1/2

ln [A] = ln [A]o k t

ln 2 = k t1/2
k t1/2 = ln 2 = 0.693 relationship between k and t1/2
Radioactive decay usually follow 1st order kinetics, and half life of an
isotope is used to indicate its stability.
Evaluate t from k or k from t

15 Chemical

16

1st order reaction calculation

N2O5 decomposes according to 1st order kinetics, and 10% of it
decomposed in 30 s. Estimate k, t and percent decomposed in 500 s.

If the rate-law is known, what are the key parameters?

Solution next
15 Chemical

17

1st order reaction calculation

N2O5 decomposes according to 1st order kinetics, and 10% of it decomposed
in 30 s. Estimate k, t and percent decomposed in 500 s.
Solution: Assume [A]o = [N2O5]o = 1.0, then [A] = 0.9 at t = 30 s or
0.9 = 1.0 e k t apply [A]o = [A] e k t
ln 0.9 = ln 1.0 k 30 s
0.1054 = 0 k * 30
k = 0.00351 s 1
t = 0.693 / k = 197 s apply k t = ln 2
[A] = 1.0 e 0.00351*500 = 0.173
Percent decomposed: 1.0 0.173 = 0.827 or 82.7 %
After 2 t (2*197=394 s), [A] = ()2 =, 75% decomposed.
After 3 t (3*197=591 s), [A] = ()3 =1/8, 87.5% decomposed.

Apply integrated rate law

solve problems
15 to
Chemical

18

Typical Problem wrt 1st Order Reaction

The decomposition of A is first order, and [A] is monitored. The following
data are recorded:
t / min 0
[A]/[M] 0.100

2
0.0905

4
0.0819

8
0.0670

Calculate k (What is the rate constant? k = 0.0499)

Calculate the half life (What is the half life? Half life = 13.89)
Calculate [A] when t = 5 min. (What is the concentration when t = 5 min?)
Calculate t when [A] = 0.0100. (Estimate the time required for 90% of A
to decompose.)

Work out all the answers

15 Chemical

19

A 2nd Order Example

Dimerization of butadiene is second order:
2 C4H6(g) = C8H12(g).
The rate constant k at some temperature is 0.100 /min. The initial
concentration of butadiene [B] is 2.0 M.
Calculate the time required for [B] = 1.0 and 0.5 M
Calculate concentration of butadiene when t = 1, 5, 10, and 30.

If the rate-law is known, what are the key parameters?

Apply the right model and work out all the parameters.
15 Chemical

Solution next
20

A 2nd Order Example

1
1

[B]
[B]o

Dimerization of butadiene is second order:

2 C4H6(g) = C8H12(g).

1
1

[B]
[B]o
t =
k

The rate constant k at some temperature

is 0.100 /min. The initial concentration of
butadiene [B] is 2.0 M.
Calculate the time t required for [B] = 1.0
and 0.5 M
Calculate concentration of butadiene when
t = 1, 5, 10, and 30.

t=

10

[B] = 1.67 1.0 0.67

15

30

35

0.50

0.29

0.25

Work out the formulas and

then evaluate values

=kt

15 Chemical

[B]o
[B] =
[B]o k t + 1

21

Half life of 2nd Order Chemical Kinetics

4.5
4
3.5
3

1/[B]

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0

t=

10

15

[B] = 1.67 1.0 0.67 0.50

30

35

0.29

0.25

How does half life vary in 2nd order reactions?

15 Chemical

22

Plot of [B] vs. t & 1/[B] vs. t for 2nd Order Reactions
t=

10

[B] = 1.67 1.0 0.67

[B]

15

30

35

0.50

0.29

0.25

[B]

[B]o
[B] =
[B]o k t + 1

[B]

t
What kind of plot is linear for 1st and 2nd15reactions?
Chemical

1
= k t
[B]o

t
23

Chemical Reaction and Molecular Collision

Molecular collisions lead to chemical reactions.
Thus, the reaction constant, k is determined by
several factors.
k=Zfp
Z: collision frequency
constant
p, the fraction with proper orientation
f, fraction of collision having sufficient energy for reaction
f is related to the potential energy barrier called
activation energy, Ea.
f e Ea / RT or exp ( Ea / R T)
Thus,

k = A e Ea / RT
constant

Potential
energy
Ea

reaction

How does temperature affect reaction rates?

24
Explain
aspect in a chemical reaction
15 energy
Chemical

Energy in chemical reactions

Potential
energy
R +A
H
exothermic

RA-PD
activated
complex

Ea Ea for reverse reaction

P+D
Endothermic rxn
Progress of reaction

Explain the various terms and energy changes

in a chemical reaction 25
15 Chemical

The Arrhenius Equation

The temperature dependence of the rate constant k is best
described by the Arrhenius equation:
or

k = A e Ea / R T
ln k = ln A Ea / R T

If k1 and k2 are the rate constants at T1 and T2 respectively, then

k1
Ea 1
1
ln =
k2
R T1 T2

1903 Nobel Prize citation in recognition of the extraordinary services he has

rendered to the advancement of chemistry by his electrolytic theory of dissociation

How does temperature affect reaction rates?

Derive and apply these relationship to solve problems,
15 Chemical
and recall the Clausius-Clapeyron equation.

26

Application of Arrhenius Equation

From k = A e Ea / R T, calculate A, Ea, k at a specific temperature and T.
The reaction:
2 NO2(g) -----> 2NO(g) + O2(g)
The rate constant k = 1.0e-10 s-1 at 300 K and the activation energy
Ea = 111 kJ mol-1. What are A, k at 273 K and T when k = 1e-11?
Method: derive various versions of the same formula
k = A e Ea / R T
A=ke
A/ k = e

Ea / R T

Ea / R T

ln (A / k) = Ea / R T

Make sure you know how to

transform the formula into
these forms.
15 Chemical

27

Application of Arrhenius Equation (continue)

The reaction:
2 NO2(g) -----> 2NO(g) + O2(g)
The rate constant k = 1.0e-10 s-1 at 300 K and the activation energy
Ea = 111 kJ mol-1. What are A, k at 273 K and T when k = 1e-11?

Use the formula derived earlier:

A = k eEa / R T = 1e-10 s-1 exp (111000 J mol-1 / (8.314 J mol-1 K 1*300 K))
= 2.13e9 s-1
k = 2.13e9 s-1 exp ( 111000 J mol-1) / (8.314 J mol-1 K 1*273 K)
= 1.23e-12 s-1
T = Ea / [R* ln (A/k)] = 111000 J mol-1 / (8.314*46.8) J mol-1 K-1
= 285 K
15 Chemical

28

The Effect of Temperature on Reaction Rates

Reaction rate = k [A}x[B]y[C]z

(Concentration effect at constant T)

k = A exp ( Ea / RT)

(Temperature effect)

Use graphic method to discuss the

variation of k vs. T
variation of k vs 1 / T
variation of ln(k) vs T
variation of ln(k) vs 1 / T

See a potential multiple choice question in an exam?

15 Chemical

29

Elementary Reactions and Mechanism

Elementary reactions are steps of molecular events showing how
reactions proceed. This type of description is a mechanism.
The mechanism for the reaction between CO and NO 2 is proposed to be
Step 1 NO2 + NO2 NO3 + NO

(an elementary reaction)

Step 2 NO3 + CO NO2 + CO2

(an elementary reaction)

Add these two equations led to the overall reaction

NO2 + CO = NO + CO2 (overall reaction)
A mechanism is a proposal to explain the rate law, and it has to satisfy
the rate law. A satisfactory explanation is not a proof.
Explain terms in red

15 Chemical

30

Molecularity of Elementary Reactions

The total order of rate law in an elementary reaction is molecularity.
The rate law of elementary reaction is derived from the equation. The
order is the number of reacting molecules because they must collide to
react.
A molecule decomposes by itself is a unimolecular reaction (step);
two molecules collide and react is a bimolecular reaction (step); &
three molecules collide and react is a termolecular reaction (step).
O3 O2 + O

rate = k [O3]

NO2 + NO2 NO3 + NO

rate = k [NO2]2

Br + Br + Ar Br2 + Ar*

rate = k [Br]2[Ar]

Caution: Derive rate laws this way only for elementary reactions.
15 Chemical

31

Molecularity of elementary reactions - Example

Some elementary reactions for the
reaction between CH4 and Cl2 are
Cl2 2 Cl
2 Cl Cl2
2Cl + CH4 Cl2 + CH4*

Write down the rate laws

and describe them as
uni- bi- or ter-molecular
steps yourself, please.

Cl + CH4 HCl + CH3

CH3 + Cl CH3Cl
CH3 + CH3 CH3-CH3
CH3Cl + Cl HCl + CH2Cl
CH2Cl + Cl CH2Cl2

15 Chemical

32

Elementary Reactions are Molecular Events

N2O5 NO2 + NO3

NO + O2 + NO2 NO2 + NO3

Explain differences between elementary

15and
Chemical
over reaction equations

33

Rate Laws and Mechanisms

A mechanism is a collection of elementary steps devise to explain the the
reaction in view of the observed rate law. You need the skill to derive a
rate law from a mechanism, but proposing a mechanism is task after you
have learned more chemistry
For the reaction, 2 NO2 (g) + F2 (g) 2 NO2F (g), the rate law is,
rate = k [NO2] [F2] .
Can the elementary reaction be the same as the overall reaction?
If they were the same the rate law would have been
rate = k [NO2]2 [F2],
Therefore, they the overall reaction is not an elementary reaction. Its
mechanism is proposed next.
34
15 Chemical

Rate-determining Step in a Mechanism

The rate determining step is the slowest elementary step in a mechanism,
and the rate law for this step is the rate law for the overall reaction.
The (determined) rate law is,
rate = k [NO2] [F2],
for the reaction,
2 NO2 (g) + F2 (g) 2 NO2F (g),
and a two-step mechanism is proposed:
i NO2 (g) + F2 (g) NO2F (g) + F (g)
ii NO2 (g) + F (g) NO2F (g)
Which is the rate determining step?
Answer:
The rate for step i is rate = k [NO2] [F2], which is the rate law, this
suggests that step i is the rate-determining or the s-l-o-w step.
Explain rate determining step in a mechanism
and use it to derive the rate law. 15 Chemical

35

Deriving a Rate Law From a Mechanism - 0

The decomposition of H2O2 in the presence of I follow this
mechanism,
i
ii

H2O2 + I
k1 H2O + IO
H2O2 + IO
k2 H2O + O2 + I

What is the rate law?

slow
fast

Energy
Eai
Eaii
reaction

Solve the problem

15 Chemical

36

Deriving a rate law from a mechanism - 1

The decomposition of H2O2 in the presence of I follow this mechanism,
i
ii

H2O2 + I
k1 H2O + IO
slow
H2O2 + IO
k2 H2O + O2 + I fast

What is the rate law?

Solution
The slow step determines the rate, and the rate law is:
rate = k1 [H2O2] [I ]
Since both [H2O2] and [I ] are measurable in the system, this is the
rate law.
15 Chemical

37

Deriving a rate law from a mechanism - 2

Derive the rate law for the reaction,
from the proposed mechanism:
i
Br2 2 Br
ii
H2 + Br
k2 HBr + H
iii
H + Br
k3 HBr

H 2 + Br2 = 2 HBr,
fast equilibrium (k1, k-1)
slow explain
fast

Solution:
The fast equilibrium condition simply says that
k1 [Br2] = k-1 [Br]2
and
[Br] = (k1/k-1 [Br2])
The slow step determines the rate law,
rate = k2 [H2] [Br]
Br is an intermediate
= k2 [H2] (k1/k-1 [Br2])
= k [H2] [Br2] ;
k = k2 (k1/k-1) M- s -1
15 Chemical
total order 1.5

38

Deriving a rate law from a mechanism - 3

The decomposition of N2O5 follows the mechanism:
1
N2O5 NO2 + NO3
fast equilibrium
2
NO2 + NO3 k2 NO + O2 + NO2 slow
3
NO3 + NO k3 NO2 + NO2
fast
Derive the rate law.
Solution:
The slow step determines the rate,
rate = k2 [NO2] [NO3]
From 1, we have
[NO2] [NO3]
= K
[N2O5]
Thus, rate = K k2 [N2O5]

NO2 & NO3 are intermediate

K, equilibrium constant
K differ from k

15 Chemical

39

Deriving rate laws from mechanisms

The steady-state approximation
is a general method for deriving
rate laws when the relative
speed cannot be identified.
It is based on the assumption
that the concentration of the
intermediate is constant.

steady-state approximation
[Intermediate]
Rate of producing the
intermediate, Rprod, is
the same as its rate of
consumption, Rcons.

Rprod > Rcons

Be able to apply the steadystate approximation to derive
rate laws

Rprod = Rcons

Rprod < Rcons

time
15 Chemical

40

Lets assume the mechanism for the reaction.

Steady-state
H2 + I2 2 HI
approximation as follows.
Step (1)
I2 k1 2 I
Step (1)
2 I k-1 I2
Step (2)
H2 + 2 I k2 2 HI
Derive the rate law.
Derivation:
rate = k2 [H2] [I] 2 (cause this step gives products)
but I is an intermediate, this is not a rate law yet.
Steady state
Since k1 [I2]
(= rate of producing I)
= k-1 [I]2 + k2 [H2] [I]2
(= rate of consuming I)
Thus,

k1 [I2]
[I]2 =
k-1 + k2 [H2]

rate = k k [H ] [I ] / {k + k15[HChemical
]}

41

Steady-state approximation - 3
From the previous result:
k1 k2 [H2] [I2]
rate =
{k-1 + k2 [H2] }
Discussion:
(i) If k-1 << k2 [H2] then {k-1 + k2 [H2]} = k2 [H2] ,
then rate = k1 k2 [H2] [I2] / {k2 [H2] } = k1 [I2] (pseudo 1st order wrt I2)
using large concentration of H2 or step 2 is fast (will meet this condition).
(ii) If step (2) is slow, then k2 << k1,
and if [H2] is not large, we have {k-1 + k2 [H2]} = k-1
and rate = k1 k2 [H2] [I2] / k1 = k2 [H2] [I2]
15 Chemical

42

Steady-state approximation - 4
In an alkaline solution, peroxydisulfate oxidizes sulfite to yield sulfate,
S2O82- + SO32- + 2 OH- 3 SO42- + H2O.
The following mechanism has been proposed:
i
S2O82- + SO32- k1 S2O72- + SO42ii
S2O72- + H2O k2 2 SO42- + 2 H+
iii
H+ + OH- k3 H2O (fast equilibrium to be discussed)
Steady-state approximation follows these steps:
What is or are the intermediates I?
Use which step to give the rate law that may involve [I]?
Express the rates of producing and consuming intermediate(s)
Express [I] of intermediate(s) in terms of [Reactants]
Derive the rate law in terms of [Reactants]
Discuss

See page 607

PHH Text
15 Chemical

43

Catalysis
Energy
A catalyst is a substance that changes the rate
Uncatalyzed rxn
of a reaction by lowing the activation energy, Ea.
It participates a reaction in forming an
intermediate, but is regenerated.
Enzymes are marvelously selective catalysts.
A catalyzed reaction,
NO (catalyst)
2 SO2 (g) + O2 2 SO3 (g)
via the mechanism
i
2 NO + O2 2 NO2 (3rd order)
ii
NO2 + SO2 SO3 + NO
15 Chemical

Catalyzed rxn
rxn

44

Catalyzed decomposition of ozone

R.J. Plunkett in DuPont discovered carbon fluorine chlorine compounds.
The CFC decomposes in the atmosphere:
CFCl3 CFCl2 + Cl
CF2Cl3 CF2Cl + Cl.
The Cl catalyzes the reaction via the mechanism:
i
O3 + h v O + O2,
ii
ClO + O Cl + O2
iii
O + O3 O2 + O2.
The net result or reaction is
2 O3 3 O2
Scientists sound the alarm, and the CFC is banned now.
15 Chemical

45

Homogenous vs. heterogeneous catalysts

A catalyst in the same phase (gases and solutions) as the reactants is a
homogeneous catalyst. It effective, but recovery is difficult.
When the catalyst is in a different phase than reactants (and products),
the process involve heterogeneous catalysis. Chemisorption, absorption,
and adsorption cause reactions to take place via different pathways.
Platinum is often used to catalyze hydrogenation
Catalytic converters reduce CO and NO emission.

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Heterogeneous catalysts
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Catalyzed reactions:
CO + O2 CO2
2 NO N2 + O2

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Enzymes selective catalysts

Enzymes are a long protein molecules that fold into balls. They often
have a metal coordinated to the O and N sites.
Molecules catalyzed by enzymes are called substrates. They are
held by various sites (together called the active site) of the enzyme
molecules and just before and during the reaction. After having
reacted, the products P1 & P2 are released.
Enzyme + Substrate ES (activated complex)
ES P1 + P2 + E
Enzymes are biological catalysts for biological systems.

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X-ray 3-D structure of

fumarate reductase. It
reduces fumerate, an
important role in the
metabolism of
anaerobic bacteria,
50 Inst.
from Max Planck

Chemical Kinetics - Summary

Explain how the various factors affect reaction rates.
Define reaction rates, average rates, initial rates and rate constants.
Evaluate rate law from experiments
Properly apply 1st and 2nd differential rate laws and integrated rate laws.
Interpret elementary reactions and mechanisms. Derive rate laws from
a given mechanism. Apply the steady-state method to derive the rate
law of a given mechanism, and discuss the results.
Explain the action of catalysts in terms of chemistry and in terms of
energy of activation.

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