Furnaces and Refractories

Training Session on Energy
Equipment
Thermal Equipment/
Furnaces & Refractories
Furnaces and
Refractories
Presentation from the
Energy Efficiency Guide for Industry in Asia
www.energyefficiencyasia.org
UNEP 2006
Training Agenda: Steam

Thermal Equipment/
Introduction
Type of furnaces and refractory
materials
Assessment of furnaces
Energy efficiency opportunities
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
What is a Furnace?
Equipment to melt metals
Casting
Change shape
Change properties
Type of fuel important

Mostly liquid/gaseous fuel or electricity
Low efficiencies due to

High operating temperature
Emission of hot exhaust gases
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Chimney:
remove
combustion
gases
Burners: raise or
maintain chamber
temperature
Thermal Equipment/
Furnace Components
Furnace chamber:
constructed of
insulating materials
Hearth: support or
carry the steel.
Consists of
refractory materials
Charging & discharging doors

for loading & unloading stock
(The Carbon Trust)
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
What are Refractories:

Materials that
Withstand high temperatures and sudden
changes
Withstand action of molten slag, glass, hot
gases etc
Withstand load at service conditions
Withstand abrasive forces
Conserve heat
Have low coefficient of thermal expansion
Will not contaminate the load
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
Refractories
Refractory lining of a
furnace arc
Refractory walls of a
furnace interior with
burner blocks
(BEE India, 2005)
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
Properties of Refractories
Melting point
Temperature at which a test pyramid (cone)
fails to support its own weight
Size
Affects stability of furnace structure
Bulk density
Amount of refractory material within a volume
(kg/m3)
High bulk density = high volume stability,
heat capacity and resistance
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
Porosity
Volume of open pores as % of total refractory
volume
Low porosity = less penetration of molten
material
Cold crushing strength

Resistance of refractory to crushing
Creep at high temperature

Deformation of refractory material under
stress at given time and temperature
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
Pyrometric cones
Used in ceramic industries
to test refractoriness of
refractory bricks
Each cone is mix of oxides
that melt at specific
temperatures
(BEE India, 2004)
Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)

Temperature at which the refractory brick and
the cone bend
Refractory cannot be used above this temp
UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
Volume stability, expansion &
shrinkage
Permanent changes during refractory service
life
Occurs at high temperatures
Reversible thermal expansion

Phase transformations during heating and
cooling
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UNEP 2006
Introduction
Thermal Equipment/
Thermal conductivity
Depends on composition and silica content
Increases with rising temperature
High thermal conductivity:

Heat transfer through brickwork required
E.g. recuperators, regenerators
Low thermal conductivity:

Heat conservation required (insulating
refractories)
E.g. heat treatment furnaces
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Introduction
materials
12
UNEP 2006
Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Thermal Equipment/
Type of Furnaces
Forging furnaces
Re-rolling mill furnaces
Continuous reheating furnaces
Type of Refractories
Type of Insulating Materials
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Classification Combustion Furnaces

Classification method
Types and examples
1. Type of fuel used
Oil-fired
Gas-fired
Coal-fired
2. Mode of charging materials
Intermittent / Batch
Periodical
Forging
Re-rolling (batch/pusher)
Pot
Continuous
Pusher
Walking beam
Walking hearth
Continuous recirculating bogie furnaces
Rotary hearth furnaces
3. Mode of heat transfer
Radiation (open fire place)

Convection (heated through medium)
4. Mode of waste heat

recovery
Recuperative
Regenerative
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Forging Furnace
Used to preheat billets/ingots
Use open fireplace system with
radiation heat transmission
Temp 1200-1250 oC
Operating cycle
Heat-up time
Soaking time
Forging time
Fuel use: depends on material and

15
number of reheats
UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Re-rolling Mill Furnace Batch type

Box type furnace
Used for heating up scrap/ingots/billets
Manual charge / discharge of batches
Temp 1200 oC
Operating cycle: heat-up, re-rolling
Output 10 - 15 tons/day
Fuel use: 180-280 kg coal/ton material
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Re-rolling Mill Furnace

Continuous pusher type
Not batch, but continuous charge and
discharge
Temp 1250 oC
Operating cycle: heat-up, re-rolling
Output 20-25 tons/day
Heat absorption by material is slow,
steady, uniform
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Continuous Reheating Furnaces

Continuous material flow
Material temp 900 1250 oC
Door size minimal to avoid air
infiltration
Stock kept together and pushed
Pusher type furnaces
Stock on moving hearth or structure

Walking beam, walking hearth, continuous
recirculating bogie, rotary hearth furnaces
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/

1. Pusher Furnace
Pushers on skids (rails) with water-cooled
support push the stock
Hearth sloping towards discharge end
Burners at discharge
end or top and/or
bottom
Chimney with
recuperator for
waste heat recovery
(The Carbon Trust, 1993)
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/

2. Walking Beam Furnace
Stock placed on stationary ridges
Walking beams raise the stock and move forwards
Walking beams lower stock onto stationary ridges
at exit
Stock is removed
Walking beams
return to furnace
entrance
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/

3. Walking Hearth Furnace
Refractory blocks extend through hearth
openings
Stock rests on fixed refractory blocks
Stock transported
in small steps
walking the hearth
Stock removed
at discharge end
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/

4. Continuous Recirculating Bogie
Furnace
Shape of long and narrow tunnel
Stock placed on bogie (cart with wheels) with
refractory hearth
Several bogies
move like train
Stock removed
at discharge end
Bogie returned
to entrance
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/

5. Rotary Hearth Furnace
Walls and roof remain stationary

Hearth moves in circle on rollers
Stock placed on hearth
Heat moves in
opposite direction
of hearth
Temp 1300oC
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Classification of Refractories
Classification method
Examples
Chemical composition
ACID, which readily combines with bases
Silica, Semisilica, Aluminosilicate
BASIC, which consists mainly of metallic

oxides that resist the action of bases
Magnesite, Chrome-magnesite, Magnesitechromite, Dolomite
NEUTRAL, which does not combine with

acids nor bases
Fireclay bricks, Chrome, Pure Alumina
Special
Carbon, Silicon Carbide, Zirconia
End use
Blast furnace casting pit
Method of manufacture
Dry press process, fused cast, hand

moulded, formed normal, fired or chemically
bonded, unformed (monolithics, plastics,
ramming mass, gunning castable, spraying)
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Fireclay Refractories
Common in industry: materials available and
inexpensive
Consist of aluminium silicates
Decreasing melting point (PCE) with increasing
impurity and decreasing AL2O3
High Alumina Refractories

45 - 100% alumina
High alumina % = high refractoriness
Applications: hearth and shaft of blast furnaces,
ceramic kilns, cement kilns, glass tanks
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Silica Brick
>93% SiO2 made from quality rocks
Iron & steel, glass industry
Advantages: no softening until fusion point is
reached; high refractoriness; high resistance to
spalling, flux and slag, volume stability
Magnesite
Chemically basic: >85% magnesium oxide
Properties depend on silicate bond concentration
High slag resistance, especially lime and iron
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Chromite Refractories
Chrome-magnesite
15-35% Cr2O3 and 42-50% MgO

Used for critical parts of high temp furnaces
Withstand corrosive slags
High refractories
Magnesite-chromite
>60% MgO and 8-18% Cr2O3

High temp resistance
Basic slags in steel melting
Better spalling resistance
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Zirconia Refractories
Zirconium dioxide ZrO2
Stabilized with calcium, magnesium, etc.
High strength, low thermal conductivity, not
reactive, low thermal loss
Used in glass furnaces, insulating refractory
Oxide Refractories (Alumina)

Aluminium oxide + alumina impurities
Chemically stable, strong, insoluble, high
resistance in oxidizing and reducing atmosphere
Used in heat processing industry, crucible shaping
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Monolithics
Single piece casts in equipment shape
Replacing conventional refractories
Advantages
Elimination of joints
Faster application
Heat savings
Better spalling resistance
Volume stability
Easy to transport, handle, install
Reduced downtime for repairs
29
UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Insulating Materials Classification

Material with low heat conductivity:
keeps furnace surface temperature
low
Classification into five groups
Insulating bricks
Insulating castables and concrete
Ceramic fiber
Calcium silicate
Ceramic coatings (high emissivity coatings)
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Castables and Concretes

Consist of
Insulation materials used for making piece
refractories
Concretes contain Portland or high-alumina
cement
Application
Monolithic linings of furnace sections
Bases of tunnel kiln cars in ceramics industry
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Ceramic Fibers
Thermal mass insulation materials
Manufactured by blending alumina
and silica
Bulk wool to make insulation
products
Blankets, strips, paper, ropes, wet felt etc
Produced in two temperature grades

32
UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Ceramic Fibers
Remarkable properties and benefits
Low thermal conductivity

Light weight
Lower heat storage
Thermal shock resistant
Chemical resistance
Mechanical resilience
Low installation costs
Ease of maintenance
Ease of handling
Thermal efficiency
Lightweight furnace
Simple steel fabrication
work
Low down time
Increased productivity
Additional capacity
Low maintenance costs
Longer service life
High thermal efficiency
Faster response
33
UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
High Emissivity Coatings

Emissivity: ability to absorb and
radiate heat
Coatings applied to interior furnace
surface:
emissivity stays constant

Increase emissivity from 0.3 to 0.8
Uniform heating and extended refractory life
Fuel reduction by up to 25-45%
34
UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
High Emissivity Coatings
(BEE India, 2005)
35
UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Introduction
materials
36
UNEP 2006
Assessment of Furnaces
FURNACE
Heat input
Heat in stock
Furnace surface/skin
Other losses
UNEP 2006
37
Openings in furnace
Hydrogen in fuel
Moisture in fuel
Flue gas
Thermal Equipment/
Heat Losses Affecting Furnace

Performance
Thermal Equipment/
Instruments to Assess Furnace

Performance
Parameters
to be measured
Location of
measurement
Instrument
required
Required
Value
Furnace soaking zone

temperature (reheating
furnaces)
Soaking zone and side

wall
Pt/Pt-Rh thermocouple
with indicator and
recorder
1200-1300oC
Flue gas temperature
In duct near the discharge

end, and entry to
recuperator
Chromel Alummel
Thermocouple with
indicator
700oC max.
Flue gas temperature
After recuperator
Hg in steel thermometer
300oC (max)
Furnace hearth pressure

in the heating zone
Near charging end and

side wall over the hearth
Low pressure ring gauge
+0.1 mm of Wc
Oxygen in flue gas
In duct near the discharge

end
Fuel efficiency monitor for

oxygen and temperature
5% O2
Billet temperature
Portable
Infrared pyrometer or
optical pyrometer
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UNEP 2006
Thermal Equipment/
Calculating Furnace Performance

Direct Method
Thermal efficiency of furnace
= Heat in the stock / Heat in fuel
consumed for heating the stock
Heat in the stock Q:
Q = m x Cp (t1 t2)
Q = Quantity of heat of stock in kCal
m = Weight of the stock in kg
Cp= Mean specific heat of stock in kCal/kg oC
t1 = Final temperature of stock in oC
t2 = Initial temperature of the stock before it enters the furnace in
oC
UNEP 2006
39
Thermal Equipment/

Direct Method - example
m = Weight of
the stock = 6000
kg
Cp= Mean
specific heat of
m x Cp (t1 t2)
stock = 0.12
kCal/kg oC
6000 kg X 0.12 X (1340 40)
t1 = Final
temperature of
936000 kCal
stock = 1340 oC
t2 = Initial
temperature of
the stock = 40 oC
(heat input / heat output) x 100
Calorific value of
oil = 10000
[936000 / (368 x 10000) x 100 = 25.43%
kCal/kg
Fuel consumption
= 368 kg/hr
Heat in the stock Q =
Efficiency =
Heat loss = 100% - 25% = 75%
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UNEP 2006
Thermal Equipment/

Indirect Method
Heat losses
a) Flue gas loss
= 57.29 %
b) Loss due to moisture in fuel = 1.36 %

c) Loss due to H2 in fuel
= 9.13 %
d) Loss due to openings in furnace

e) Loss through furnace skin
Total losses
= 5.56 %
= 2.64 %
= 75.98 %
Furnace efficiency =
Heat supply minus total heat loss
100% 76% = 24%
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UNEP 2006
Thermal Equipment/

Typical efficiencies for industrial furnaces
Furnace type
Thermal efficiencies (%)
1) Low Temperature furnaces

a. 540 980 oC (Batch type)
20-30
b. 540 980 oC (Continous type)
15-25
c. Coil Anneal (Bell) radiant type
5-7
d. Strip Anneal Muffle
7-12
2) High temperature furnaces

a. Pusher, Rotary
7-15
b. Batch forge
5-10
3) Continuous Kiln
a. Hoffman
25-90
b. Tunnel
20-80
4) Ovens
a. Indirect fired ovens (20 oC 370 oC)
35-40
b. Direct fired ovens (20 oC 370 oC)
35-40
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
Introduction
materials
43
UNEP 2006
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

Thermal Equipment/
1. Complete combustion with minimum excess air

2. Proper heat distribution
3. Operation at the optimum furnace temperature
4. Reducing heat losses from furnace openings
5. Maintaining correct amount of furnace draft
6. Optimum capacity utilization
7. Waste heat recovery from the flue gases
8. Minimize furnace skin losses
9. Use of ceramic coatings
10.Selecting the right refractories
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
1. Complete Combustion with

Minimum Excess Air
Importance of excess air
Too much: reduced flame temp, furnace
temp, heating rate
Too little: unburnt in flue gases, scale losses
Indication of excess air: actual air /

theoretical combustion air
Optimizing excess air
Control air infiltration

Maintain pressure of combustion air
Ensure high fuel quality
Monitor excess air
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
2. Proper Heat Distribution

When using burners
Flame should not touch or be obstructed
No intersecting flames from different burners
Burner in small furnace should face upwards
but not hit roof
More burners with less capacity (not one big
burner) in large furnaces
Burner with long flame to improve uniform
heating in small furnace
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
3. Operate at Optimum Furnace

Temperature
Operating at too high temperature: heat loss,
oxidation, decarbonization, refractory stress
Automatic controls eliminate human error

Slab Reheating furnaces
1200oC
Rolling Mill furnaces
1200oC
Bar furnace for Sheet Mill
800oC
Bogie type annealing furnaces
650oC 750oC
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
4. Reduce Heat Loss from Furnace

Openings
Heat loss through openings
Direct radiation through openings
Combustion gases leaking through the openings
Biggest loss: air infiltration into the furnace
Energy saving measures

Keep opening small
Seal openings
Open furnace doors less frequent and shorter
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
5. Correct Amount of Furnace Draft

Negative pressure in furnace: air
infiltration
Maintain slight positive pressure
Not too high pressure difference: air
ex-filtration
Heat loss only about 1% if furnace

pressure is controlled properly!
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
6. Optimum Capacity Utilization

Optimum load
Underloading: lower efficiency
Overloading: load not heated to right temp
Optimum load arrangement

Load receives maximum radiation
Hot gases are efficiently circulated
Stock not placed in burner path, blocking flue
system, close to openings
Optimum residence time

Coordination between personnel
50
Planning at design and installation stage UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
7. Waste Heat Recovery from Flue Gases

Charge/Load pre-heating
Reduced fuel needed to heat them in furnace
Pre-heating of combustion air

Applied to compact industrial furnaces
Equipment used: recuperator, selfrecuperative burner
Up to 30% energy savings
Heat source for other processes

Install waste heat boiler to produce steam
Heating in other equipment (with care!) UNEP 2006
51

Thermal Equipment/
8. Minimum Furnace Skin Loss

Choosing appropriate refractories
Increasing wall thickness
Installing insulation bricks (= lower
conductivity)
Planning furnace operating times
24 hrs in 3 days: 100% heat in refractories
lost
8 hrs/day for 3 days: 55% heat lost
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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
9. Use of Ceramic Coatings

High emissivity coatings
Long life at temp up to 1350 oC
Most important benefits
Rapid efficient heat transfer
Uniform heating and extended refractory life
Emissivity stays constant
Energy savings: 8 20%

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UNEP 2006

Thermal Equipment/
10. Selecting the Right Refractory

Selection criteria
Type of furnace
Type of metal charge
Structural load of
furnace
Presence of slag
Stress due to temp

gradient & fluctuations
Area of application
Chemical compatibility
Working temperatures
Heat transfer & fuel

conservation
Extent of abrasion
and impact
Costs
54
UNEP 2006
Training Session on Energy

Equipment
Thermal Equipment/
Furnaces and
Refractories
THANK YOU
FOR YOUR ATTENTION
55
UNEP 2006
Disclaimers and References

Thermal Equipment/
This PowerPoint training session was prepared as part of

the project Greenhouse Gas Emission Reduction from
Industry in Asia and the Pacific (GERIAP). While
reasonable efforts have been made to ensure that the
contents of this publication are factually correct and
properly referenced, UNEP does not accept responsibility for
the accuracy or completeness of the contents, and shall not
be liable for any loss or damage that may be occasioned
directly or indirectly through the use of, or reliance on, the
contents of this publication. UNEP, 2006.
The GERIAP project was funded by the Swedish
International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida)
Full references are included in the textbook chapter that is
available on www.energyefficiencyasia.org
56
UNEP 2006

Furnaces and Refractories

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Training Session on Energy

Training Agenda: Steam

Type of fuel important

Low efficiencies due to

Charging & discharging doors

(The Carbon Trust)

What are Refractories:

Cold crushing strength

Creep at high temperature

(BEE India, 2004)

Pyrometric Cone Equivalent (PCE)

Reversible thermal expansion

High thermal conductivity:

Low thermal conductivity:

Training Agenda: Steam

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Classification Combustion Furnaces

Types and examples

1. Type of fuel used

2. Mode of charging materials

3. Mode of heat transfer

Radiation (open fire place)

4. Mode of waste heat

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Fuel use: depends on material and

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Re-rolling Mill Furnace Batch type

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Re-rolling Mill Furnace

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

Stock on moving hearth or structure

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Continuous Reheating Furnaces

Walls and roof remain stationary

(The Carbon Trust, 1993)

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Silica, Semisilica, Aluminosilicate

BASIC, which consists mainly of metallic

Magnesite, Chrome-magnesite, Magnesitechromite, Dolomite

NEUTRAL, which does not combine with

Fireclay bricks, Chrome, Pure Alumina

Carbon, Silicon Carbide, Zirconia

Blast furnace casting pit

Dry press process, fused cast, hand

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

High Alumina Refractories

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

15-35% Cr2O3 and 42-50% MgO

>60% MgO and 8-18% Cr2O3

Type of Furnaces and Refractories

Oxide Refractories (Alumina)