Degree of saturation

Saturated solution
Solvent holds as much
solute as is possible at
that temperature.
Undissolved solid
remains in flask.
Dissolved solute is in
dynamic equilibrium
with solid solute
particles.
Solutions
1

Degree of saturation
Unsaturated Solution
Less than the
maximum amount of
solute for that
temperature is
dissolved in the
solvent.
No solid remains in
flask.
Solutions
2

Degree of saturation

Supersaturated
Solvent holds more solute than is normally
possible at that temperature.
These solutions are unstable; crystallization can
often be stimulated by adding a seed crystal or
scratching the side of the flask.

Solutions
3

Degree of saturation

Unsaturated, Saturated or Supersaturated?

How much solute can be dissolved in a solution?

More on this in Chap 17
(solubility products, p 739)

Solutions
4

Factors Affecting Solubility

Chemists use the
axiom like dissolves
like:
Polar substances
tend to dissolve in
polar solvents.
Nonpolar substances
tend to dissolve in
nonpolar solvents.
Solutions
5

Factors Affecting Solubility

The stronger the
intermolecular
attractions between
solute and solvent,
the more likely the
solute will dissolve.
Example: ethanol in water
Ethanol = CH3CH2OH
Intermolecular forces = H-bonds; dipole-dipole; dispersion
Ions in water also have ion-dipole forces.

Solutions
6

Factors Affecting Solubility

Glucose (which has
hydrogen bonding) is
very soluble in water.
Cyclohexane (which
only has dispersion
forces) is not watersoluble.

Solutions
7

Factors Affecting Solubility

Vitamin A is soluble in nonpolar compounds
(like fats).
Vitamin C is soluble in water.

Solutions
8

Which
vitamin is
water-soluble
and which is
fat-soluble?

Solutions
9

Gases in Solution
In general, the
solubility of gases in
water increases with
increasing mass.
Why?
Larger molecules
have stronger
dispersion forces.
Solutions
10

Gases in Solution

QuickTime and a
TIFF (LZW) decompressor
are needed to see this picture.

Solutions
11

Gases in Solution
Increasing
pressure
above
solution
forces
more gas
to dissolve.

The solubility of
liquids and solids
does not change
appreciably with
pressure.
But, the solubility of a
gas in a liquid is
directly proportional to
its pressure.
Solutions
12

Henrys Law
Sg = kPg
where
Sg is the solubility of
the gas;
k is the Henrys law
constant for that gas in
that solvent;
Pg is the partial
pressure of the gas
above the liquid.

Solutions
13

Henrys Law
k for N2 at 25
=6.8 x 10-4 mol/L atm

Sg = kPg
Solutions
14

Temperature
Generally, the
solubility of solid
solutes in liquid
solvents increases
with increasing
temperature.

Solutions
15

Temperature
The opposite is true of
gases. Higher
temperature drives
gases out of solution.
Carbonated soft drinks
are more bubbly if
stored in the
refrigerator.
Warm lakes have less
O2 dissolved in them
than cool lakes.
Solutions
16

Chap 13:
Ways of Expressing
Concentrations of
Solutions
Solutions
17

Mass Percentage

mass of A in solution
100
Mass % of A =
total mass of solution

Solutions
18

Parts per Million and

Parts per Billion
Parts per Million (ppm)
ppm =

mass of A in solution
106
total mass of solution

Parts per Billion (ppb)

mass of A in solution
109
ppb =
total mass of solution
Solutions
19

Mole Fraction (X)

moles of A
XA =
total moles in solution

In some applications, one needs the mole

fraction of solvent, not solutemake sure
you find the quantity you need!
Solutions
20

Molarity (M)
M=

mol of solute
L of solution

You will recall this concentration measure

from Chapter 4.
Because volume is temperature
dependent, molarity can change with
temperature.
Solutions
21

Molality (m)
m=

mol of solute
kg of solvent

Because neither moles nor mass change

with temperature, molality (unlike molarity)
is not temperature dependent.
Solutions
22

ss
Ma
Mo
les

/M
o le
s

s
as
/M
M

/L
s
ole

M
ol
es

/M
aSolutions
ss23

SAMPLE EXERCISE 13.4 Calculation of Mass-Related Concentrations

(a) A solution is made by dissolving 13.5 g of glucose (C6H12O6) in 0.100 kg of water. What is the mass
percentage of solute in this solution? (b) A 2.5-g sample of groundwater was found to contain 5.4g of Zn2+
What is the concentration of Zn2+ in parts per million?

PRACTICE EXERCISE
(a) Calculate the mass percentage of NaCl in a solution containing 1.50 g of NaCl in 50.0 g of water. (b) A
commercial bleaching solution contains 3.62 mass % sodium hypochlorite, NaOCl. What is the mass of NaOCl
in a bottle containing 2500 g of bleaching solution?

PRACTICE EXERCISE
A commercial bleach solution contains 3.62 mass % NaOCl in water. Calculate (a) the molality and (b) the mole
fraction of NaOCl in the solution.

Solutions
25

Colligative Properties
Colligative properties depend only on
the number of solute particles present,
not on the identity of the solute
particles.
Among colligative properties are
Vapor pressure lowering
Boiling point elevation
Melting point depression
Osmotic pressure

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