Chapter 14

Oscillations
A2
Mr. Chong Kwai Kun

Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(a) describe simple examples of free oscillations
(b) investigate the motion of an oscillator using experimental and
graphical methods
(c) understand and use the terms amplitude, period, frequency,
angular frequency and phase difference and express the period
in terms of both frequency and angular frequency
(d) recognise and use the equation a = 2x as the defining
equation of simple harmonic motion
(e) recall and use x = x0sint as a solution to the equation a = 2x
(f) recognise and use v = v0cos t, v = ( )
(g) describe, with graphical illustrations, the changes in
displacement, velocity and acceleration during simple harmonic
motion

Learning Outcomes
Candidates should be able to:
(h) describe the interchange between kinetic and potential energy
during simple harmonic motion
(i) describe practical examples of damped oscillations with
particular reference to the effects of the degree of damping and
the importance of critical damping in cases such as a car
suspension system
(j) describe practical examples of forced oscillations and
resonance
(k) describe graphically how the amplitude of a forced oscillation
changes with frequency near to the natural frequency of the
system, and understand qualitatively the factors that determine
the frequency response and sharpness of the resonance
(l) show an appreciation that there are some circumstances in
which resonance is useful and other circumstances in which
resonance should be avoided.

CHAPTER
14.1

Simple
Harmonic
Motion

Oscillatory
Any motion that repeats
itself after equal intervals of
Motion
time is called periodic motion.

If an object in periodic motion moves back and forth over the

same path, the motion is called oscillatory or vibratory motion

Free and Forced

Vibrations
Uses of
Oscillations
Pleasure
Music
Keeping time
Other

Free Oscillations
Forced Vibrations

Observing oscillation
Mass-spring
system
A pendulum
A loudspeaker
cone

Simple harmonic motion S.H.M.

An oscillation is a repeated motion about a fixed point which known as the
equilibrium position.

A special kind of oscillation

X, Y : extreme points
O: centre of oscillation / equilibrium position
A: amplitude
A special relation between the
displacement and acceleration of
the particle
8

The amplitude, A of an
oscillation is equal to the
maximum displacement, x
Frequency, f in hertz is equal
to the number of complete
oscillations per second.
also:

f=1/T

Angular frequency, in
radians per second is given by:

x=0
-+AA
equilibrium position

= 2 f
or
= 2 / T

Simple Harmonic Motion

A system will oscillate
if there is a force
acting on it that tends
to pull it back to its
equilibrium position
a restoring force.
In a swinging
pendulum the
combination of
gravity and the
tension in the string
that always act to
bring the pendulum

Tension

Resultant
(restoring
force)
Gravity

Simple Harmonic Motion

For a spring and
mass the
combination of the
gravity acting on
the mass and the
tension in the spring
means that the
system will always
try to return to its
equilibrium position.

T
Restoring
force
g

Simple Harmonic Motion

When the force acting on the particle is directly
proportional to the displacement and opposite in direction,
the motion is said to be linear simple harmonic motion

F kx

F x

The pattern of SHM

motion
The pattern of SHM is the same as the side view of an
object moving at a constant speed around a circular path
The amplitude of the
oscillation is equal to
the radius of the circle.
+A
-A

The object moves quickest as

it passes through the central
equilibrium position.
The time period of the
oscillation is equal to the
time taken for the object to
complete the circular path.

Conditions required for

SHM
When an object is performing SHM:
1. Its acceleration is proportional to its
displacement from the equilibrium position.
2. Its acceleration is directed towards the
equilibrium position.
Mathematically the above can be written: a = k x where k is a constant and the minus sign indicates
that the acceleration, a and displacement, x are in
opposite directions

Acceleration variation of SHM

a

The constant k is equal to

+ 2 x

(2f )2 or 2 or (2/T)2
Therefore:

a = - (2f )2 x

x
-A

+A

(given on data sheet)

or

- 2 x

a = - 2 x
gradient = - 2 or - (2f )2

or

a = - (2/T)2 x

Question 1
A body oscillating with SHM has a period of 1.5s and
amplitude of 5cm. Calculate its frequency and maximum
acceleration.
(a) f = 1 / T = 1 / 1.5s
frequency = 0.67 Hz
(b) a = - (2f )2 x
maximum acceleration is when x = A (the amplitude)
a = - (2f )2 A
= - (2 x 0.6667Hz)2 x 0.015m
maximum acceleration = 0.88 ms-2

Simple Harmonic Motion

A mass on a spring has a displacement as a function of
time that is a sine or cosine curve:
Here, A is called the
amplitude of the motion.

SHM Displacement
If we call the period of the motion T this is the time to
complete one full cycle we can write the position as a
function of time:

It is then straightforward to show that the position at time

t + T is the same as the position at time t, as we would
expect.

Uniform Circular Motion and SHM

An
object
in
simple
harmonic motion has the
same motion as one
component of an object in
uniform circular motion:
The object in circular motion
has an angular speed of

where T is the period of

motion of the object in
simple harmonic motion.

Uniform Circular Motion and SHM

The position as a function of time:

The angular frequency:

Velocity and Acceleration of SHM

The velocity as a function of time:

And the acceleration:

Both of these are found by taking components of the circular motion

quantities.

Velocity equations of SHM

The velocity, v of an object oscillating with SHM varies with
displacement, x according to the equations:

v = 2f (A2 x 2)
or
v = (A2 x 2)
or
v = (2 / T) (A2 x 2)

Question 2
A body oscillating with SHM has a frequency of 50Hz and
amplitude of 4.0mm. Calculate its displacement and
acceleration 2.0ms after it reaches its maximum
displacement.
Maximum displacement = amplitude, A = 4.0mm
(a) x = A cos (2 f t)
= 4.0mm x cos (2 50 x 2.0ms)
= 4.0mm x cos (2 50 x 0.0020s)
= 0.6283
displacement = 0.628 mm
(b) a = - (2f )2 x
= - (2 x 50)2 x 0.6283mm
= - (100)2 x 0.0006283m
acceleration = - 62 ms-2

Question 3
A body oscillating with SHM has a period of 4.0ms and
amplitude of 30m. Calculate (a) its maximum speed and
(b) its speed when its displacement is 15m.
f=1/T
= 1 / 4.0ms
= 1 / 0.004s
= 250Hz
(a) v = 2f (A2 x 2)
maximum speed occurs when
x=0
vmax = 2f (A2) = 2f A
= 2 x 250 x 30m
= 2 x 250 x 0.000 030m
maximum speed = 0.0471 ms1

(b) v = 2f (A2 x 2)
= 2 x 250 x ((0.000 030m)2
(0.000 015m)2)
= 500 x ((0.000 030m)2
(0.000 015m)2)
= 500 x ((9 x 10 -10)
(2.25 x 10 -10))
= 500 x (6.75 x 10 -10)
= 500 x 2.598 x 10 -5
speed = 0.0408 ms-1

The spring-mass system

If a mass, m is hung from a spring of spring
constant, k and set into oscillation. Since
the force on a mass on a spring is
proportional to the displacement,

The Period of a Mass on a Spring

Therefore, the period is

T 2

m
k

Example
A particle moving with S.H.M. has velocities of 4 cm s -1 and 3 cm s-1 at distances of 3
cm and 4 cm respectively from its equilibrium. Find
(a) the amplitude of the oscillation

Solution:
By v2 = w2(A2 x2)
when x = 3 cm, v = 4 cm s-1,
x = 4 cm, v = 3 cm s-1.
42 = w2(A2 32) --- (1)
32 = w2(A2 42) --- (2)
(1)/(2):
16/9 = (A2 9) / (A2 16)
9A2 81 = 16 A2 - 256
A2 = 25
A = 5 cm
amplitude = 5 cm

4 ms-1
O

27

3 ms-1

(b)the period,
(c) the velocity of the particle as it passes through the equilibrium position.

(b)

Put A = 5 cm into (1)

42 = w2(52 32)
w2 = 1 w = 1 rad s-1
T = 2p/w = 2p s
(c) at equilibrium position, x = 0
By v2 = w2(A2 x2)
v2 = 12(52 02)
v = 5 cm s-1

28

Energy Conservation in Oscillatory Motion

In an ideal system with no nonconservative forces, the total mechanical energy is
conserved. For a mass on a spring:

Since we know the position and velocity as functions of time, we can find the
maximum kinetic and potential energies:

Energy Conservation in Oscillatory Motion

As a function of time,

So the total energy is constant; as the kinetic energy increases, the

potential energy decreases, and vice versa.

Energy Conservation in Oscillatory Motion

This diagram shows how the energy transforms from potential to kinetic
and back, while the total energy remains the same.

Energy variation with an oscillating spring

The strain potential
energy is given by:
EP = k x2
Therefore the maximum
potential energy of an
oscillating spring
system
= k A2
= Total energy of the
system, ET

But: ET = EP + EK
k A2 = k x2 + EK
And so the kinetic
energy is given by:
EK = k A2 - k v2

EK = k (A2 - x2)

Energy versus displacement graphs

energy
ET
EK

The potential energy

curve is parabolic,
given by:
EP = k x2

EP
-A

+A
displacement, x

The kinetic energy

curve is an inverted
parabola, given by:
EK = k (A2 - x2)
The total energy
curve is a
horizontal line such
that:
E =E +E

Energy versus time graphs

energy

Displacement varies with time

according to:
x = A cos (2 f t)
Therefore the potential
energy curve is cosine
squared, given by:
EP = k A2 cos2 (2 f t)

kA ET
2

EP
EK

T/4

T/2

3T/4

T
time, t

k A2 = total energy, ET.

and so: EP = ET cos2 (2 f t)
Kinetic energy is given by:
EK = ET - EP
EK = ET - ET cos2 (2 f t)
EK = ET (1 - cos2 (2 f t))
EK = ET sin2 (2 f t)
EK = k A2 sin2 (2 f t)

The Pendulum
A simple pendulum consists of a mass m (of negligible size) suspended by a
string or rod of length L (and negligible mass).
The angle it makes with the vertical varies with time as a sine or cosine.

The Pendulum
Looking at the forces on the
pendulum bob, we see that the
restoring force is proportional to sin
, whereas the restoring force for a
spring is proportional to the
displacement (which is in this
case).

The Pendulum
However, for small angles, sin and are approximately equal.

The Pendulum
Substituting for sin allows us to treat the pendulum in a mathematically
identical way to the mass on a spring. Therefore, we find that the period of a
pendulum depends only on the length of the string:

T 2

L
g

Question 4
A simple pendulum has a period of 2 s and an amplitude of
swing 5 cm.
Calculate the maximum magnitudes of
(a) velocity, and
(b) acceleration of the bob.

Solution:

2
2
By T
2
rad s 1

(a) maximum magnitude of velocity

= A = (5) = 5 cm s-1
(b) maximum magnitude of velocity
= 2A = 5cm s-2
39

Question 4
Calculate:
(a) the period of a pendulum of length 20cm on the Earths
surface (g = 9.81ms-2) and
(b) (b) the pendulum length required to give a period of
1.00s on the surface of the Moon where g = 1.67ms-2.
(a) T = 2(L / g) = 2 (0.20m / 9.81ms-2)
= 2 (0.204)
time period = 0.90s
(b) T = 2(L / g)
T2 = 42 (L / g)
L = T2g / 42 = ((1.00)2 x 1.67) / 42
length = 0.0423m (3.23cm)

Question 5
An mass oscillates with an amplitude
of 4.00 m, a frequency of 0.5 Hz
and a phase angle of /4.
(a) What is the period T?
(b) Write an equation for the
displacement of the particle.
(c) Calculate the velocity and
acceleration of the object at any
time t.
(d) Determine the position, velocity and acceleration of the object at
time t = 1.00s.
(e) Calculate the maximum velocity and acceleration of the object.

Question 6
A spring stretches by 3.90 cm
when a 10.0 g mass is hung from
it. A 25.0 g mass attached to this
spring oscillates in simple
harmonic motion.

(a) Calculate the period of the motion.

(b) Calculate frequency and the angular velocity of the motion.

Question 7
A simple pendulum consists
of a mass of 50g attached to
the end of a thread of length
60cm. Calculate:
(a) the period of the
pendulum (g = 9.81ms-2)
(b) the maximum height
reached by the mass if the
masss maximum speed is
1.2 ms-1.

(b) The maximum speed

occurs at the equilibrium
position, when the mass is at
its lowest position so that its
potential energy. EP = 0
kinetic energy, EK = m v2
= x (0.050) x (1.2)2
= 0.036 J

The maximum height occurs

(a) T = 2(L / g)
= 2 (0.60m / 9.81ms-2) when EP = EK
= 2 (0.06116)
so m x g x h = 0.036 J
time period = 1.56s
h = 0.036 / (0.050 x 9.81)
maximum height = 0.074m

Free oscillation
A freely oscillating object oscillates
with a constant amplitude.
The total of the potential and kinetic
energy of the object will remain
constant.
EP + ET = a constant
This occurs when there are no
frictional forces acting on the object
such as air resistance.

Damping
Damping occurs when frictional
forces cause the amplitude of an
oscillation to decrease.
The amplitude falls to zero with the
oscillating object finishing in its
equilibrium position.
The total of the potential and kinetic
energy also decreases.
The energy of the object is said to
be dissipated as it is converted to
thermal energy in the object and its
surroundings.

Damped Oscillations
This exponential decrease is shown in the figure:

Damped Oscillations
The previous image shows a system that is
underdamped it goes through multiple
oscillations before coming to rest. A critically
damped system is one that relaxes back to the
equilibrium position without oscillating and in
minimum time; an overdamped system will also
not oscillate but is damped so heavily that it takes
longer to reach equilibrium.

Types of damping
1. Light Damping
In this case the amplitude gradually
decreases with time.
The period of each oscillation will
remain the same.
The amplitude, A at time, t will be
given by: A = A0 exp (- c t)
where A0 = the initial amplitude
and c = a constant depending on the
system (eg air resistance)

displacement
A0

critical damping
heavy damping

time

light damping

2. Critical Damping
In this case the system
returns to equilibrium,
without overshooting, in
the shortest possible time
after it has been displaced
from equilibrium.
3. Heavy Damping
In this case the system
returns to equilibrium
more slowly than the
critical damping case.

Forced oscillations
All undamped systems of bodies have a frequency with which
they oscillate if they are displaced from their equilibrium
position.
This frequency is called the natural frequency, f0.
Forced oscillation occurs when a system is made to oscillate
by a periodic force. The system will oscillate with the applied
frequency, fA of the periodic force.
The amplitude of the driven system will depend on:
1. The damping of the system.
2. The difference between the applied and natural frequencies.

Driven Oscillations and Resonance

An oscillation can be driven by an oscillating driving force; the frequency of the
driving force may or may not be the same as the natural frequency of the system.

Resonance
The maximum amplitude occurs when the applied
frequency, fA is equal to the natural frequency, f0 of
the driven system.
This is called resonance and the natural frequency
is sometimes called the resonant frequency of the
system.

Resonance curves
amplitude of driven
system, A

very light damping

light damping

more damping

driving
force
amplitude

f0

applied force frequency, fA

Notes on the resonance curves

If damping is increased then the amplitude of the driven
system is decreased at all driving frequencies.
If damping is decreased then the sharpness of the peak
amplitude part of the curve increases.
The amplitude of the driven system tends to be:
- Equal to the driving system at very low frequencies.
- Zero at very high frequencies.
- Infinity (or the maximum possible) when fA is equal to f0 as
damping is reduced to zero.

The Tacoma Narrows Bridge

Collapse
An example of resonance
caused by wind flow.
Washington State USA,
November 7th 1940.

YouTube Videos:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3mclp9QmCGs
4 minutes with commentary
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IqK2r5bPFTM&feature=related
3 minutes newsreel footage
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j-zczJXSxnw&feature=related
6 minutes - music background only

Summary
The amplitude is the maximum displacement from equilibrium.
Position as a function of time:

Velocity as a function of time:

Summary
Acceleration as a function of time:

Period of a mass on a spring:

Total energy in simple harmonic motion:

Summary
Potential energy as a function of time:

Kinetic energy as a function of time:

A simple pendulum with small amplitude exhibits simple harmonic motion

Summary
Period of a simple pendulum:

Summary
Oscillations where there is a nonconservative force are called damped.
Underdamped: the amplitude decreases exponentially with time:

Critically damped: no oscillations; system relaxes back to equilibrium in

minimum time
Overdamped: also no oscillations, but slower than critical damping

Summary
An oscillating system may be driven by an external force
This force may replace energy lost to friction, or may cause the amplitude to
increase greatly at resonance
Resonance occurs when the driving frequency is equal to the natural frequency
of the system