The Science of Ballistics: Mathematics Serving The Dark Side

The Science of Ballistics:
Mathematics Serving the

Dark Side
William W. (Bill) Hackborn
University of Alberta, Augustana Campus
29 May 2006
CSHPM/SCHPM Annual Meet

ing
Ballistics and its Context
Ballistics (coined by Mersenne, 1644) is physical science,

technology, and a tool of war [Hall, 1952].
Science consists of interior ballistics (inside the barrel)

and exterior ballistics (after leaving the barrel).
Interior ballistics involves chemistry and physics, the

thermodynamics of combustion and an expanding gas.
Exterior ballistics involves the physics of a projectile
moving through a resisting medium.
Tension between science, technology, and gunnery.
Affected by interrelations among scientists, engineers,

industry, the military, and the state [Hall, 1952].
29 May 2006
CSHPM/SCHPM Annual Me
Niccol Fontana (Tartaglia)
Mathematical fame from priority dispute with

G. Cardano over cubic equation (1547-48).
The New Science (1537) deals with ballistics.
Designed gunners quadrant.
Claimed maximum range at 45.
Aristotelian and medieval baggage

(violent and natural motion, impetus).
Had qualms about improving such a damnable exercise.

29 May 2006
Galileo
Did experiments on motion, culminating

in law of falling bodies (in a vacuum) and
parabolic path of a projectile (ca. 1609).
Published in Discourses on Two New Sciences (1638).
Professor in Pisa and Venice. Became mathematician

and philosopher to Cosimo de Medici in 1611.
Recognized role of air resistance in causing deformation

in the [parabolic] path of a projectile, but
Thought parabolic theory still valid for low-velocity mortar

ballistics, and included range tables in Discourses.
29 May 2006
Toricelli
Galileos last and favourite pupil [Hall, 1952].
Clarified Galileos results in Geometrical Works (1644).
Expressed range as r = R sin 2, where R is maximum

range; designed related instrument.
Dealt with cases where target is above/below gun and

where gun is mounted on a fortification or carriage.
Corresponded with G. B. Renieri (1647) on unexpected

point-blank vs. maximum range, etc. [Segre, 1983].
conflict of theory vs. practice
29 May 2006
Huygens
Used period of a pendulum to determine gravitational

acceleration, g = 981 cm/s2 (1664).
Experiments on motion in a resisting medium (1669):
jet of water impinging on one side of a balance scale

block of wood pulled by weighted cord through water
air screens on two wheeled carts, one pulled at twice the speed
Concluded that resisting force at speed V is given by

FR = kV2, analogous to Galileos law of falling bodies.
Abandoned attempt to determine trajectory of projectile

subject to this square law of resistance. [Hall, 1952]
Found trajectory of projectile moving in a medium whose

resistance varies as projectiles velocity (as did Newton).
29 May 2006
Newton
Principia (1687) has 40 propositions on motion in resisting

mediums, investigated experimentally and mathematically.
Concluded that resistance associated with fluid density is

FR = kV2, but resistance may have other components too.
Found projectile trajectory when resistance varies as the

projectiles speed: FR /m = f (V) = kV.
g x g
kx
y b 2 log 1
k a k
a
Partially analyzed trajectory when f (V) = kV2. [Hall, 1952]

29 May 2006
Johann Bernoulli
Solved ballistics problem for f (V) = kVn in response to

a challenge from Oxford astronomer John Keill (1719)
[Hall, 1952].
Formulation of the problem:

dx
u,
dt
dy
v,
dt
du
ku u 2 v 2
dt
n 1
2
dv
g kv u 2 v 2
dt
n 1
2
Bernoullis 1721 solution [Routh, 1898]:

Letting p = tan , where is the inclination angle, yields
u
t g 1
kng
b/a
u dp ,
29 May 2006
1 p
p
n1
2
b/a
x g 1
dp
b/a
u 2 dp ,
y g 1
b/a
pu 2 dp
How Significant is Air

Consider a shot-put, terminal velocity 145 m/s [Long &
Resistance?
Weiss, 1999], projected at 170 m/s at launch angle 45.
Q denotes Quadratic Drag, i.e. f (V) = kV2.
The small inclination approximation [Hackborn, 2005] is

g x
g
2 kx
y Ys ( x ) b
2 2
2ka a
4k a
29 May 2006
The Ballistics Revolution
Benjamin Robins wrote New Principles of Gunnery (1642).
Invented ballistics pendulum for measuring

musket ball velocities. [Steele, 1994]
Did foundational work in interior ballistics.
Discovered Robins effect and sound barrier.
Euler translated and added commentary to

New Principles, at request of Frederick the Great (1745).
Euler analyzed projectile trajectory subject to the square law

of resistance, calculated range tables for one family (1753).
von Graevenitz published more extensive tables (1764);

still sometimes used in World War II [McShane et al, 1953].
29 May 2006
10
Late 19th Century to World War I

H ( y ) V G (V )
Air resistance per unit mass described by f ( y,V )

C
where H(y) = e-.0003399y, air density ratio at height y feet,
G(V) = kVn-1, Gvre drag function,
C = m/d2, the ballistics coefficient,
= form factor specific to projectile shape.
Gvre function (named after French commission) found

experimentally. Mayevskis version (1883) [Bliss, 1944]:
V (ft/s)
29 May 2006
log10 k
0-790
-4.33011
790-970
-7.22656
970-1230
-13.19813
1230-1370
-7.01910
1370-1800
-3.88074
1800-2600
1.7
-2.90380
2600-3600
1.55
-2.39095
11
Late 19th Century to World War I

(continued)
The method of small arcs often used for trajectories.
F. Siacci, at Turin Military Academy, developed an

approximate method for low trajectories with small
inclinations, less than about 20 (ca. 1880) [Bliss, 1944].
Siaccis method adapted for use in U.S. by Col. J. Ingalls,

resulting in Artillery Circular M (1893, 1918), still
sometimes used in World War II [McShane et al, 1953].
Siaccis method accurate to O(4), launch angle .
Littlewood, 2nd Lt. in RGA, developed anti-aircraft method.

Improved Siaccis method to O(6) and high trajectories,
accurate to 20 feet in 60000 for = 30 [Littlewood, 1972].
29 May 2006
12
Roles of Governments and the

Extensive testing was done (e.g. Woolwich, Aberdeen).
Military
Governments in England, Prussia, and France soon

included work of Robins, Euler, etc. in military and
university curricula (e.g. cole Polytechnique).
Napolon, a young artillery lieutenant, wrote a 12-page

summary of Robins and Eulers research in 1788.
Ballistics tables/tools used on battlefields [Steele, 1994].
O. Veblen took command of office of experimental ballistics

at new ($73 million) Aberdeen Proving Ground (Jan. 1918).
N. Wiener worked as a computer at Aberdeen, and later

observed that the the overwhelming majority of significant
American mathematicians had gone through the
discipline of the Proving Ground [Grier, 2001].
29 May 2006
13
Other Social Issues
The (mis)use of mathematical and human potential:
ICBMs, ABMs, and SDI:
Time lost, opportunities missed, e.g. Ramanujan.

Time, talent wasted on such a damnable exercise.
Government grants in the mathematical sciences.

Resistance to Star Wars in the Reagan years.
When Computers Were Human [Grier, 2005]:
Women in the mathematical work force.

Women in university mathematics and related professions.
ENIAC, silicon chips, and computing technology.
29 May 2006
14

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The Science of Ballistics:

Mathematics Serving the

CSHPM/SCHPM Annual Meet

Ballistics and its Context

Ballistics (coined by Mersenne, 1644) is physical science,

Science consists of interior ballistics (inside the barrel)

Interior ballistics involves chemistry and physics, the

Tension between science, technology, and gunnery.

Affected by interrelations among scientists, engineers,

Niccol Fontana (Tartaglia)

Mathematical fame from priority dispute with

The New Science (1537) deals with ballistics.

Designed gunners quadrant.

Claimed maximum range at 45.

Aristotelian and medieval baggage

Had qualms about improving such a damnable exercise.

Did experiments on motion, culminating

Professor in Pisa and Venice. Became mathematician

Recognized role of air resistance in causing deformation

Thought parabolic theory still valid for low-velocity mortar

Galileos last and favourite pupil [Hall, 1952].

Clarified Galileos results in Geometrical Works (1644).

Expressed range as r = R sin 2, where R is maximum

Dealt with cases where target is above/below gun and

Corresponded with G. B. Renieri (1647) on unexpected

Used period of a pendulum to determine gravitational

Experiments on motion in a resisting medium (1669):

jet of water impinging on one side of a balance scale

Concluded that resisting force at speed V is given by

Abandoned attempt to determine trajectory of projectile

Found trajectory of projectile moving in a medium whose

Principia (1687) has 40 propositions on motion in resisting

Concluded that resistance associated with fluid density is

Found projectile trajectory when resistance varies as the

Partially analyzed trajectory when f (V) = kV2. [Hall, 1952]

Solved ballistics problem for f (V) = kVn in response to

Formulation of the problem:

Bernoullis 1721 solution [Routh, 1898]:

How Significant is Air

Weiss, 1999], projected at 170 m/s at launch angle 45.

Q denotes Quadratic Drag, i.e. f (V) = kV2.

The small inclination approximation [Hackborn, 2005] is

The Ballistics Revolution

Benjamin Robins wrote New Principles of Gunnery (1642).

Invented ballistics pendulum for measuring

Did foundational work in interior ballistics.

Discovered Robins effect and sound barrier.

Euler translated and added commentary to

Euler analyzed projectile trajectory subject to the square law

von Graevenitz published more extensive tables (1764);

Late 19th Century to World War I

Air resistance per unit mass described by f ( y,V )

Gvre function (named after French commission) found

Late 19th Century to World War I

F. Siacci, at Turin Military Academy, developed an

Siaccis method adapted for use in U.S. by Col. J. Ingalls,

Siaccis method accurate to O(4), launch angle .

Littlewood, 2nd Lt. in RGA, developed anti-aircraft method.

Roles of Governments and the

Governments in England, Prussia, and France soon

Napolon, a young artillery lieutenant, wrote a 12-page

Ballistics tables/tools used on battlefields [Steele, 1994].