Academic Writing

Academic Writing
Dr. Mariana Yusof

Centre for Languages and
Human Development
School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014
PSM Components
Abstract
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Reference
Appendix
Abstract
1. Introduction/Background:
What do we know about the topic?
2. Aim/problem statement:
What is the objective? Why do you want to investigate/examine?
What is the study about?
3. Methods/procedure/approach:
What did you actually do to get your results? (e.g. questionnaire , interview,
experiment, case study, observation )
R
C
4. Results/findings:
As a result of completing the above procedure, what did you
learn/invent/create?
What was discovered?
5. Conclusion/Discussion/ Recommendation:
What do the findings mean?
TIPS for writing an Abstract
Avoid Jargon
-
non-technical synonyms will help people in another major

understand your research better
Use short, direct sentences

-
vary your sentence structure to avoid choppiness
Use Past Tense

-
when describing what you have already done.
Use Present Tense

-
when describing drawn conclusions
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Background of the Study

Problem Statement
Objective
Scope
Project Significance
1.1 Background of the Study
Provide enough information to understand the specific problem

being addressed
This background information may include:

a historical summary of the problem being addressed;
a brief summary of previous work on the topic, including,
if appropriate, relevant theory; and
the specific reasons the report is being written.
Use the Simple Present or Simple Present Perfect Tense
1.2 Problem Statement
What is the problem that the research will address?

A good problem statement should answer
these questions:
i. What is the problem? This should explain why the
project research is needed.
ii. Who has the problem? This should explain who
needs the solution and who decides the problem
has been solved.
iii. What are the possible solutions?
iv. What are the scope and limitations of the project?
(in terms of time, financial, resources, technologies)
Formulating a Problem Statement

Develop three, interlocking short sentences:
a) A statement that leads in
b) A statement on existing studies
c) A statement about originality, with an identification
of what the present study would do (statement of
purpose)
Adapted: Henton & Schwartz (2007)

Example of a good problem statement

A statement
that leads in
The number of students

undertaking higher degrees
has increased rapidly but
universities are concerned
that completion rates are
low.
The State of Connecticut leads most states in

the net export of students seeking higher
education. While this is not necessarily a
problem, it may relate to Connecticut's
competitive position in the higher education
arena nationwide.
A statement
on existing
studies,
including
identifying the
research gap
While many studies have

examined completion rates
for the undergraduate
students, little is known
about the reasons for low
completion rates among the
postgraduate students.
Many sectors of the state do not have easy

access to higher education resources due to
geography, physical limitations, time schedules,
monetary situations, and others.
The inter-institution connectivity method in place
today (i.e. the Internet) has several
shortcomings: (a) limited bandwidth (b) lack
reliability, and (c) not a secure transport
mechanism.
A statement
of purpose
The aim of the proposed

study is to examine the
variables that influence the
success rate among the
postgraduate students.
The scope of this project is to examine a

network infrastructure to be used only by the
institutions of higher education. In order to
provide maximum utility, such a network should
also provide connectivity to K-12, libraries,
museums, and private corporations.
1.3 Objective
Statement of Purpose
Objectives
The aim of the proposed study is to

examine the variables that influence the
success rate among the postgraduate
students.
To establish the success rate

To identify the factors affecting
To identify other factors that may be
The scope of this project is to examine a

network infrastructure to be used only by
the institutions of higher education. In order
to provide maximum utility, such a network
should also provide connectivity to K-12,
libraries, museums, and private
corporations.
To determine whether there are

To compare the
To identify the type of infrastructure
Common verbs to write Objectives
This study/project/research
sets out to
focuses on
investigates
studies
visualises
presents
demonstrates
considers
reviews
is concerned with
1.4 Scope
The scope of the project

A statement describing what will and will not be discussed.
Example:
The scopes of this project are:
Analysis is on the transmission line 275kV double circuits.
The specification of tower 275 kV is taken from Tenaga Nasional
Berhad Transmission, Malaysia.
All data is incorporated into the software to get the value of EMF
produced from the tower.
The different EMF produced can be seen based on phase
arrangement of cables.
1.5 Project Significance (Rationale of the Project)
Who/what may benefit from the project and how

The contribution of this project (refer to the objectives)
Groups that could benefit include:
Other researchers
Professionals and other practitioners
Service Providers
Teachers/Lecturers/Trainers
Policy Makers
Managers
Entrepreneurs
Manufacturers
Consumers
Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
Overview of chapter
Body
Deductive Approach/Inductive Approach
Compare and Contrast
Closing
Conclusion
Literature Review (Introduction)
Introduction
Elements that can be included in the Introduction:
A brief restatement of the general topic and issue or problem to
provide a context for the review that follows
Example:
The chapter begins with a review of Some issues in obtaining
reliable and accurate are discussed. Meteorological features
including , are presented to provide an understanding of the
study problem.
A summary of the overall trends in the field

Example:
Since the research is focused on , it is necessary to review as it
pertains to that have been carried out in this field.
A description of how the review is organised

Example:
The following section reviews the main tool applied in the
development of : namely, the Artificial Neural Network (ANN). This
section of the review discusses the theoretical concepts and
algorithms of ANN, as well as the work carried out by
A description of the scope of the review and explanation why

certain literature was included or excluded
Example:
The chapter also presents background information on In
particular, the chapter describes in detail a model The chapter
ends with brief descriptions of which can potentially contribute
to a forecasting system.
Literature Review (Body)
Body
Deductive Approach/Inductive Approach
Body
Compare and Contrast
Tenses used in Literature Review
Use Simple Present, Simple Past or

Simple Present Perfect Tense
Highlights the original authors viewpoint

Provides information about the authors work
Provides neutral or general ideas
Emphasizes the authors viewpoints
Simple Present Tense
Simple Past Tense

(has/have + verb)
i) To express overviews,
statements of main points
OR a generally accepted
scientific fact
i) To refer to an
action/event/activity that
began and ended at a
specific time in the past
i) To indicate that research in

the area is still continuing, or
that the research has
immediate relevance today
Example: An
Electromagnetic Field (also
EMF OR em FIELD) is a
physical field produced by
movement.
Example: Beginning in 1995,

Phase 1 implicated the
design and construction of
the 500kV ...
Example: Research has

shown that smoking is linked to
lung cancer (research is still
going on and will continue).
ii) a statement made by you

as a writer.
ii) To describe what was

found in a study, but which
might not be generally true
ii) To generalise about past

literature
Example: This paper

presents the results of
magnetic field measurement
based on ...
Example: Henderson (2007)

found that women above 60
years old were more likely to
use computers than
Example: Institute of Electronic

and Electrical Engineering
(IEEE) have contributed to
the establishment of these
standards and guidelines.
an action happened at an unspecified time before now. The exact

time is not important.
You CANNOT use the Present Perfect with specific time
expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I
was a child, when I lived in Japan, at that moment, that day, one
day, etc.
We CAN use the Present Perfect with unspecific expressions such
as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far,
already, yet, etc.
Has/have + past participle
Example: has not seen/have seen
Words to Cite References
Reporting verbs
Examples: claim, suggest, prove, describe, outline, present,
propose, recommend, show, stress, support, subscribe to,
investigate, explore
Dal et al. (2013) pointed out the
Hansen (2012) described the OEE as a ...
Schmenner and Vollmann (2013) showed in an empirical study that
Use linking phrases when quoting/paraphrasing

(to compare findings)
Examples: This is supported by, These findings are verified by,

However, contemporary research shows that
Nakajima (2013) has indicated that under ideal conditions

organizations should have These figures
would result in and Nakajima considers this figure to be a
good benchmark for a typical manufacturing capability. Kotze
(2012), on the other hand, argues that
Linkers
Contrast
In spite of / Despite: Link two contrasting ideas. Followed by a
noun phrase.
Although / (Even) though: Link two contrasting ideas. Followed by
a sentence.
However / Nevertheless / Still / Yet / Even so / On the
contrary / In contrast: Introduce a new idea which marks a contrast
with previously stated ideas. Introduced by a comma.
On the one hand ... On the other hand: Links two contrasting
ideas / paragraphs.
In contrast to / Contrary to: Link two contrasting ideas. Followed by a
noun phrase.
Whereas: Link two contrasting ideas. Not separated by commas.
Linkers
Reason and cause
As / Since / Seeing that: Introduce a sentence.
Subordinate sentences introduced by because always appear in final
position.
On account of / Owing to / Due to: Introduce a noun phrase.
Purpose
In order to / So as to: Introduce an infinitive of purpose.
In order that / So that: Introduce a sentence.
Linkers
Consequence
Consequently / As a consequence / As a result / Therefore
As a consequence of / As a result of: Followed by a noun phrase.
Addition
Moreover / Furthermore / In addition / Besides: Used after a strong
pause and separated from the sentences. They are introduced by
a comma.
As well as / In addition to / Besides: Used to add one more piece
of information. Followed by a noun phrase.
Linkers
Exemplification
For example / For instance: Introduces an example referring to
previously stated ideas.
Such as: Introduces an example referring to the last idea.
Tenses used in Literature review

Present perfect
Linkers
Past
perfect
Double circuit overhead transmission lines in Malaysia have been in
operation for several years. Rapid infrastructure development incited the

utility company to raise electrical transmission capacity to ensure
acceptable and consistent supply to the consumers. Due to this, some
towers had been built close to another tower. In certain places, under
different circumstances it could consist of six towers energized within
the same land reserve. It is estimated that 80% from the total number of
transmission line towers in Malaysia are of the double circuit type while
the rest are designed for the quadruple circuit type. There is a
requirement to study and evaluate the impact of EMF exposure levels for
these multiple towers. This study presents the results of magnetic field
measurement based on double circuit 275 kV transmission line
configuration in Malaysia. Using the real dimensions of the 275 kV
Simple
presentwere constructed and
Simple
past
transmission lines,
models
substantiated.

This chapter will focus on the theory of each part in the robot. The sources of
the theory are from text books, journal articles, newspapers, thesis and
websites that contain related theories.
Simple future
Simple present
This chapter will introduce terms such as Proteus 7.0 Circuit

Simulation, CCS Compiler Software, Ultrasonic Motion
Detector, Servo Motor, Pheriperal Interface Controller (PIC)
PIC16F877A. The main objective of this chapter is to provide a
detailed explanation of the terms.

Relate your work to previous research
Numerous studies have been conducted to
determine the safe exposure levels at residential
areas. Thus, this simulation presents an exposure
assessment study on magnetic field at the edge of
ROW double circuit transmission line 275 Kv.

Justify your own research (highlight why your research
is necessary)
There is a requirement to study and evaluate the impact
of EMF exposure levels for these multiple towers. This
study presents the results of magnetic field
measurement based on double circuit 275 kV
transmission line configuration in Malaysia. Using the
real dimensions of the 275 kV transmission lines, models
were constructed and substantiated.
synthesise the whole ideas in the body show how your

ideas, examples and references have been combined to
support the research
The specific type of microcontroller that is used in this
project is a microcontroller from the Microchip
Technology Incorporated which is PIC18F452. The
PIC18F452 is used as controller system that will process
data from monitoring system and also to control output to
display system and output system. PIC18F452 is chosen
because of the high performance and multifunction.
Simple future
Simple present
Literature Review (Conclusion)
Closing
Conclusion is usually short. Elements included are:
A summary of the main contributions to the area of study and the
most significant findings that relate to the problem under study
Example:
Research into the genre of theses has been Furthermore, a review
of the literature has shown that many studies investigated the
process of Until the 1990s, few studies investigated the ...
Some comments on the current state of research in the field,

pointing areas of disagreement, inconsistencies in findings, or gaps
in the research and linking them to the proposed study
Example:
The most promising studies analysed the structure , and more
recently the same approach has been used to A number of studies
have been investigated However, to date, few studies have
analysed the ,,, of the present study.
A brief preview of what will be covered in the following chapter

Example:
The next chapter develops the underlying framework of the .. to
address the set out in
Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY
provides detailed and precise

procedural information on
how the data are collected
and how these data are
analysed
includes the materials
and methods used in
the project
includes graphical
presentations
It is written in both Simple Present, Past Tense or

Passive Tense
Begin the methodology part under a new heading. The
first part of the methodology should address your
research design and data collection method.
This section should be thorough, although not overly
wordy, and it should describe in exact terms your data
collection procedures.
Grammar used in writing Methodology chapter is usually a mixture of

Past tense Verb + Past Participle in order to describe the procedure of
conducting the research.
For example:
Samples were taken .
Data was/were obtained by .
In choosing word to write methodology of a research, researcher

should choose words that describe process and procedures. For
example, the use of words like collect, analyze, calculate, obtain,
distribute and choose.
Chapter 4
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Results (what happened?)

report outcomes of a test, system, study,
design or experiment
involve selecting and ordering data to address
the project objectives
Discussion (why it happened?)

discuss/compare/explain the results/findings
describe models/equation/system/framework
that derived from the project
Introducing Results
inform the reader the overall content of the section
explain the procedure or method of the experiment/investigation
highlight graphical illustrations used in presenting the results
E.g. This chapter comprises of the results for EMF radiation that are
obtained from different arrangements of double circuit arrangement
lines. Six configurations of phase cable arrangements are used to
obtain the EMF wave of the transmission line. All input data for the 36
arrangements are displayed in Figures 4.0.
Simple present
Passive
Presenting the Results

This chapter presents, explains and interprets the findings of the study
in both written (linear text) and in figures like graphs, tables, diagrams
and charts (non-linear text)
Figure 4.0 shows the results from the simulations based on the
arrangement of the configurations.
The graph of the magnetic profile is determined from the results and
is displayed in Figure 4.1.
Table 3.0 gives the measurements of the chlorine levels in the pool.
The experimental findings are summarized in the table below:
The new management courses are illustrated in Figure 3.
Words to Discuss Results
The results show that

The results suggest that
The data demonstrate that
The result indicates that
The result demonstrates
Chapter 5
CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION
Conclusion & Recommendation

Justifications of the objectives
Review of scope or method
Review of significant findings
Explanation of the significance and
reasons of the findings
Examination of the limitations of the study
Implications of the study
Recommendations for future studies
Tenses
Use Simple Present Tense
Giving background information
Indicating a gap
Stating the conclusion and recommendations
Use Simple Past or Present Tense
Stating the objectives
Use Past Tense
Describing method and/or materials
Presenting the findings
Chapter 5 Conclusion & Recommendation
As mentioned earlier in the introduction, the purpose of this study are to design an
automatic pineapple cutting machine. This machine have proven to be invaluable as it is
able to do all the required process to produce a cylindrical shape of pineapple pulp
which are cutting the head and tail of the pineapple as well as to peel the skin and core of
the pineapple. The automatic pineapple cutting machine have three axis mechanism
movement applied to the machine. The machine was developed by combining three
major engineering basic that is electrical, electronic and mechanical engineering. There
is some modifications made to ensure the mechanism can function smoothly to achieve
the high performance of the machine. The most challenging part in development process
are to make the mechanism center and balance to move without the use of mechanical
machine like CNC, milling and grinding machine. The squaring process to the component
used is essential because it will cause the movement of mechanism to stuck and deflect.
It is recommended that further research be conducted on the system performance and
mechanical system to develop higher accuracy cutting machine and reduce the vibration
on the process.
Chapter 5 Conclusion & Recommendation

(Revised version)
As mentioned earlier in the introduction, the purpose of this study are is to design an
automatic pineapple cutting machine. This machine have has proven to be invaluable as it
is able to do all the required process to produce a cylindrical shape of pineapple pulp.
which are The processes involved are cutting the head and tail of the pineapple as well as
to peel peeling the skin and core of the pineapple. The automatic pineapple cutting
machine have has three axis mechanism movement applied to the machine. The machine
was is developed by combining three major engineering basics, that is namely electrical,
electronic, and mechanical engineering. There is are some modifications made to ensure
the mechanism can function smoothly to achieve the high performance of the machine.
The most challenging part in development process are is to make the mechanism center
and balance to move without the use of mechanical machine like such as the CNC, milling,
and grinding machine. The squaring process to the component used is essential because
it will cause the movement of mechanism to stuck and deflect. It is recommended that
further research need to be conducted on the system performance and mechanical system
to develop higher accuracy cutting machine and reduce the vibration on during the
process.
Reference: Harvard style
Harvard Quick Guide

Further reading:
http://www.staffs.ac.uk/assets/harvard_referencing_examples_tcm44-39847.pdf
Reference:APA style
1. Gerson, S. J., & Gerson, S. M. (2012). Technical Communication Process and

Product (Seventh Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
2. Hart, H. (2005). Introduction to Engineering Communication. Upper Saddle
River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall.
3. Morgan, D., & Regan, N. (2008). Take-Off: Technical English for Engineering.
UK: Garnet Publishing. Purdue Online Writing Lab. Retrieved from
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/
Appendix
optional, additional piece of
information at the end of the
project
theory/picture/graph/diagram
Reference
1. Feasibility Study for a Statewide Higher Education Information Technology Network State of Connecticut.
(1996). Retrieved from
http://www.ctdhe.org/info/oldreports/rptErnst&Young/ey2.htm
2. Hernon, P & Schwartz, C. (2007). Editorial: What is a Problem Statement. Library & Information
Science Research 29 (2007) 307309.
3.
Problem Statements: Purdue Online Writing Lab. Retrieved from https://

owl.english.purdue.edu/media/ppt/20120629105941_957.ppt
4.
Noorzan Mohd Noor & Glrenys, M.P. (2012). Writing Your Thesis. Kuala Lumpur: Prentice Hall
5. Swales, J. M., & Feak, C. B. (2009). Abstracts and the Writing of Abstract. Volume 1 of the Revised
and Expanded Edition of English in Todays Research World. USA: The University of Michigan Press.

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Dr. Mariana Yusof

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

TIPS for writing an Abstract

non-technical synonyms will help people in another major

Use short, direct sentences

vary your sentence structure to avoid choppiness

Use Past Tense

when describing what you have already done.

Use Present Tense

when describing drawn conclusions

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

Background of the Study

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

1.1 Background of the Study

Provide enough information to understand the specific problem

This background information may include:

Use the Simple Present or Simple Present Perfect Tense

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

1.2 Problem Statement

What is the problem that the research will address?

Formulating a Problem Statement

Adapted: Henton & Schwartz (2007)

Example of a good problem statement

The number of students

The State of Connecticut leads most states in

While many studies have

Many sectors of the state do not have easy

The aim of the proposed

The scope of this project is to examine a

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

The aim of the proposed study is to

To establish the success rate

The scope of this project is to examine a

To determine whether there are

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

Common verbs to write Objectives

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

The scope of the project

1.5 Project Significance (Rationale of the Project)

Who/what may benefit from the project and how

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

Literature Review (Introduction)

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

A summary of the overall trends in the field

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

A description of how the review is organised

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

A description of the scope of the review and explanation why

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

Literature Review (Body)

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

Literature Review (Body)

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

Tenses used in Literature Review

Use Simple Present, Simple Past or

Highlights the original authors viewpoint

School of Informatics Science, UMS, Labuan 23 May 2014

Simple Present Tense

Simple Past Tense

Simple Present Perfect Tense

i) To indicate that research in

Example: Beginning in 1995,