Bio- molecules

Grade 12

Structures and Properties of

Water
We are accustomed to good old H2O, but we will now
examine water a bit more closely.
Water consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded to an oxygen
atom. The bonds are shared electrons between oxygen and
O
hydrogen
Water molecules have a bent geometry
H
H
because of the presence of non bonding
electrons pairs.
The non bonding electrons repel the
electrons in the bond, giving water bent,
instead of linear geometry.

Water molecules are neutral in charge, and are usually

unreactive (inert).** Water however has partial charges which
give it very useful properties.
Electrons ( negatively charged) are
attracted to the oxygen atom,
causing a partial negative charge to
develop on the oxygen atom
Hydrogen atoms are left with a
corresponding partial positive charge
The oxygen end of water has a
negative charge and the hydrogen
end has a positive charge. The
hydrogens of one water molecule are
attracted to the oxygen from other
water molecules.
** Note water is used as a reagent, for photosynthesis, and
also in hydrolysis reactions.

This attractive force known as hydrogen

bonding is what gives water its
cohesive properties.
This has several biological implications
such as the fact that water has a high
surface tension, because molecules are
held so tightly together by hydrogen
bonds.
Hydrogen Bonding in
Water

Because of this some animals such as

the Jesus lizard , and the Water strider
can walk on water

The Jesus Lizard- using surface

tension

Because of the partial charges , water can

become attracted to the walls of narrow
vessels and ascend . This is called
capillary action
What is happening is that the water
molecules are attracted to the straw
molecules.
When one water molecule moves closer to
a the straw molecules the other water
molecules (which are cohesively attracted
to that water molecule) also move up into
the straw.
Plant roots take up water from the soil via
capillary action. Water travels up xylem of
plants due to high cohesive nature.

The partial charge that develops across the

watermoleculehelps make it an
excellentsolvent. Water dissolves many
substances by surrounding charged particles
and "pulling" them into solution.
For example, common tablesalt, sodium
chloride, is an ionic substance that contains
alternating sodium and chlorineions.
When table salt is added to water, the partial
charges on the water moleculeare attracted to
the Na+and Cl-ions, and surround them, hence
causing them to dissolve.

Water dissolves many other

substrates which are essential to
life.

Water readily dissolves other substrates and this

attribute is used in transport through the body.

Water is a fundamental component of blood

plasma, tissue fluid and lymph and are used to

dissolve a wide range of substances such as red
blood cells that carry oxygen, platelets used for
clotting, as well as minerals, which can then be
easily transported and made available to the
cells.

 Metabolic waste products such as ammonia and

urea are removed from the body in a water

solution. Most digestive juices have salts and
enzymes in solution, tears consist largely of water.
These are used for cleaning the surface of the eye
to avoid infections.
Water is also important at the cellular level, for

delivering nutrients and oxygen to cells, in

solution, and for removing waste such as CO2 form
cells

Water in heat regulation

Water

has a high specific heat, which

means that it resists temperature
changes when it absorbs or releases
heat.
As a result of hydrogen bonding among
water molecules, it takes a relatively
large heat loss or gain for each 1 degree
C change in temperature.
Hydrogen bonds must absorb heat to
break, and they release heat when they
form.

Water in heat regulation

Much absorbed heat energy is used to
disrupt hydrogen bonds before water
molecules can move faster (increase
temperature).
Water helps to regulate temperature in
biological systems by resisting change (i.e.
Constant body temperature
Large bodies of water also help regulate
environmental temperature.

Water in heat regulation

Water has a high heat of vaporisation

Large amount of heat needed to break
hydrogen bonds in order for individual
molecule to escape as gas.

When water evaporates it removes a large

amount of heat from the surface it leaves.
The principle by which animals and plants
are cooled through transpiration and
perspiration.

Density and freezing properties of Water

Below 4oC the density of water decreases
This means that ice is less dense than water,

and hence will float

This is essential for aquatic life , as when

lakes, seas, freeze over, only the surface is

frozen, and plant and animal life can still
survive at lower depths.

Density and freezing properties of Water

Carbohydrates
Contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
General formula Cx(H2O)y
Are all aldehydes or ketones around which
O
their chemistry is based.

C
H

Divided into Monosaccharides, disaccharides

and polysaccharides

Monosaccharides
Single sugar units.
General formula (CH2O)n
Classified according to # of carbon atoms
Triose, tetrose, pentose , hexose, heptose
One C atom has an aldehyde group (aldose)

or ketone group (ketoses0 attached. All other

C atoms have OH groups attached.
H
O

H
C

H
H

C
C
H

OH
OH

HO

C
H C
H

OH

Monosaccharides
O

H
C

H
H

C
C

OH
OH

H
HO

C
H C

OH

Aldehydes and ketones reduce blue Cu(II)

ions to red Cu(I) ions forming the red
precipitate Cu2O- reducing sugar tests.
Cu(II) + e-

Cu(I)

Glucose -Structure and Function

The OH group
at C 5 attaches
to C 1 leading to
the closing of
the ring.
The process is
easily reversed,
Ring form
Open Chain form
so glucose exists
as a mixture of
open chain and
ring forms.
Glucose is a monosaccharide (single sugar) (inverting sugar)
Glucose is used as a source of energy in cells. The
process by which glucose is broken down to yield
energy in cells is called glycolysis.

Alpha and beta glucose

The position of the OH group at C

1 is different.

Glucose Structure and Function

ATP ADP

YOU ONLY NEED TO KNOW THAT GLUCOSE IS THE

SUBSTRATE FOR GLYCOLYSIS.
Glycolisis involves the ring form of glucose.
Under the action of the enzyme hexokinase, the OH
group attached to C 6 is phosphorylated by ATP.
Due to the loss of one phosphate group, ATP is reduced to
ADP. This is the first step in the glycolsis of glucose.
Glucose-6-phospahte, remains in the cell, and undergoes
glycolysis to yield energy, or is converted to glycogen.

Sucrose- structure and function

Sucrose, (table sugar) is a

disaccharide (double sugar).
It is composed of one molecule
of glucose and one molecule
of fructose
- H2O

Glucose

Fructose

Water is eliminated in the

formation of sucrose from the
ring forms of fructose and
glucose

Sucrose- structure and function

In biological systems, the reverse
occurs.
Under the direction of the
enzyme sucrase, glucose is
hydrolysed to yield glucose and
fructose.
+ H2O

The monosaccharides are then

metabolised through glycolisis.
Other double sugars include
maltose, lactose

Glucose

Fructose

Starch- Structure and

function
Starch is a
polysaccharide, i.e. its
has a large number of
monomer units in a
chain.
Monomer units e.g.
glucose are bonded
together at the OH
groups, with the
elimination of water.
Starch is manufactured
by plants to store
glucose.

amylose (a
simple soluble
starch)

Amylopectin

Starch can occur in long

continuos chains of
200- 200 000 glucose
units
Amylopectin has side
chains which make it
more complex and
insoluble. This type of
starch can have over
2 000 000 glucose
molecules

Starch coils are arranged in precise way, for

enzymes to act on them.

Glycosidic linkage

+ n H2O

Starch can be
hydrolysed when
necessary, by
plants, or
animals to
glucose, which
then undergoes
glycolysis to
yield energy.

In hydrolysis
water is added
across glycosidic
bonds to
regenerate the
OH groups
The hydrolysis of glucose is controlled by enzymes
in both plants and animals.

Glycogen
Animals can use starch made by plants, but cannot
synthesise it themselves.
Instead, excess glucose** is converted to glycogen,
for storage in animals. Glycogen is stored largely in
muscle and liver cells, and is degraded to glucose
when there is a demand.
Glycogen is made by an enzymes glycogen
synthase, in conjuction with a protein called
glycogenin. The starting material is glucose-6phpospahte, and glycogen is degraded on demand
to this same compound by the enzyme glycogen
phosphorylase.

glucose-6phpospaht
e

Glycogen.

Cellulose

While starch is a polymer of -D-glucose, cellulose is

constructed by -D-glucose

-D-Glucose
Cellulose

Amylose starch
-D-Glucose

Separate
cellulose
chains

Because of the alternating positions of the groups in cellulose,

different chains are able to fit closer together.
Allows greater interaction between chains, through hydrogen bonds.
Chains are held in place making cellulose very rigid.
Good for plant cell walls, and overall support of plants