 Elements of Set theory

 Indices and Logarithms

 Commercial Arithmetic
 Differential Calculus
 Determinants

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Understanding set theory helps
people to …

• see things in terms of systems

• organize things into groups

• begin to understand logic

Set: A well-defined collection of distinct
objects is called a set.

Element: An element is an object contained

in a set.

Notation of Sets: Capital letters are usually

used to denote or represent a set.
Representation of Sets: There are two
methods of representing a set. (i) Roster
Method (ii) Set builder form.

Finite and Infinite Sets: A set is finite if it

contains a specific number of elements.
Otherwise, a set is an infinite set.
Null Set or Empty Set or Void Set: A set
with no elements is an empty set.

Singleton Set or Singlets: A set consisting

of a single element is called a singleton set
or singlet. The cardinality of the singleton
set is 1.

Equivalent Sets: Two finite sets A and B

are said to be equivalent sets if cardinality of
both sets are equal i.e. n (A) = n (B).
Equal Sets: Two sets A and B are said to be
equal if and only if they contain the same
elements i.e. if every element of A is in B
and every element of B is in A. We denote
the equality by A = B.

Cardinality of a Set A: The number of

elements in a finite set A, is the cardinality
of A and is denoted by n(A).
Universal Set: In any application of the
theory of sets, the members of all sets
under consideration usually belong to some
fixed large set called the universal set.

Power Set: The family of all subsets of any

set S is called the power set of S. We denote
the power set of S by P (S).
Write all definitions.
Upper case designates set name
Lower case designates set elements
{ } enclose elements in set
 or is (or is not) an element of
 is a subset of (includes equal
sets)
 is a proper subset of
 is not a subset of
 is a superset of
| or : such that (if a condition is true)
| | the cardinality of a set
 S={a, b, c} refers to the set whose
elements are a, b and c.

aS means “a is an element of set S”.

dS means “d is not an element of set S”.

 {x S | P(x)} is the set of all those x from
S such that P(x) is true.
E.g., T={x Z | 0<x<10} .
Notes:
1.{a,b,c}, {b,a,c}, {c,b,a,b,b,c} all
represent the same set.
2.Sets can themselves be elements of other
sets, e.g., S={ {cat, rat}, {Pot, Pan}, …}
Roster method: The method of specifying a
set consists of surrounding the collection of
elements with braces.
Set Builder method: This has the general
form
{variable | descriptive statement }.

The vertical bar (in set builder notation)

is always read as “such that”.

Set builder notation is frequently used

when the roster method is either
inappropriate or inadequate
Subset: If every element of Set A is also
contained in Set B, then Set A is a subset of
Set B
• A is a proper subset of B if B has more
elements than A.
Intersection: The intersection of two sets A
and B is the set containing those elements
which are elements of A and elements of
B.
Written as A  B
Union: The union of two sets A and B is the
set containing those elements which are
elements of A or elements of B.
Written as A  B
Commutative operations:
AB=BA
A∩B=B∩A

Distributive Law:
A ∩ ( B  C )= (A ∩ B)  (A ∩ C)
A  ( B ∩ C )= (A  B) ∩ (A  C)
Associative Law:
A ∩ ( B ∩ C )= (A ∩ B) ∩ C
A  ( B  C )= (A  B)  C

Other Properties:
A   =A A∩=
AA=A A∩A=A
Write proofs for
• A∩B=B∩A
• A  ( B ∩ C )= (A  B) ∩ (A  C)
• A  ( B  C )= (A  B)  C
Subset: If every element of Set A is also
contained in Set B, then Set A is a subset of
Set B
• A is a proper subset of B if B has more
elements than A.
Let U be a universal set. The complement of
a set A is defined to be the set of all
elements which are in U and not in A. The
complement of A is denoted by A’ or A or Ac.
(i.e.) A’ = {x | x∈U, x∉A}
The difference of sets A and B is defined to
be the set which contains all those elements
in A which are not in B. The difference of set
A and B is denoted by A – B
(i.e.) A-B = {x | x∈A, x∉B}
Similarly B-A = {x | x∈B, x∉A}
Note:
A-B ≠ B-A
Suppose A and B are sets. Then A is called a
subset of B: A  B

iff every element of A is also an element of B.

Symbolically,

A B  x, if xA then x B.

AB  x such that xA and xB.

Venn Diagram:
A Venn diagram is a pictorial representation
of sets by set of points in the plane. The
universal set U is represented pictorially by
interior of a rectangle and the other sets are
represented by closed figures viz circles or
ellipses or small rectangles or some curved
figures lying within the rectangle.
Venn diagrams show relationships between
sets and their elements

Sets A & B

U Universal Set
A B
A is a subset of B and is represented as
shown in the venn diagram.
(AB)’ = A’∩B’
(A∩B)’ = A’B’
Prove (A∩B)’ = A’B’ using Venn diagram.
Laws of Indices
If m and n are positive integers, and a≠0
then
Product Law: am.an = am + n
Quotient Law: am/an = am - n
Power Law: (am)n = amn
 (ab)m = am . bm
 am/n=(am) 1/n=n√am
 ao = 1
 a-1=1/a
1. If x = yz, y = zx, z = xy show that xyz=1
𝒂 −𝒂
𝟒𝒂 (𝟒𝒂−𝟏 )𝒂 𝟑𝒏 −𝟐𝟑 . 𝟑𝒏−𝟐
2. Show that .
𝟔𝟒𝟑
÷
𝟒𝒂+𝟏 𝟐𝟐𝒂−𝟐 𝟏𝟔 𝟑𝒏 −𝟑𝒏−𝟏

is independent of a and n.
Definition: The logarithm of a positive
number to a given base is the index of the
power to which the base is raised to equal
the number.
Consider N = ax
N is a positive number, is the base and is
the index of the power. From the definition
we can write the equation N = ax as
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑵 = 𝒙
Product Rule:

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑴𝑵 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑴 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑵

Quotient Rule:

𝑴
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑴 - 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑵
𝑵
Power Rule:
𝒏
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 (𝑴 ) = 𝐧 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝑴
Rule of Change of base:

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒂 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒄 𝒂 . 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒄

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒄 𝒂
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒃 𝒂 =
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒄 𝒃
1. Find the value of 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝟐𝟕𝟑

𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟑 𝟖
2. Prove that = 𝟑 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝟐
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟗 𝟏𝟔 . 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟒 𝟏𝟎
Common Logarithms:
Logarithms with base 10 are called common
logarithms
Natural Logarithms:
Logarithms with base e are called Napier or
Natural logarithms. The value of e lies
between 2 and 3.
Characteristics and Mantissa:
The logarithm of a number contains two
parts
1) the integral part and 2) the decimal part.
The integral part is called characteristics
and the decimal part is called the mantissa
For a number greater than one the
characteristic is the number, one less than
the number of digits before the decimal
point and is positive.
For a number less than one the
characteristic is the number one more than
the number of zeros between the decimal
point and the first non-zero digit in the
number expressed as a decimal and it is
negative.
1. Find the number of digits in 715

2. When 2-5*3-4 is expressed as a decimal

find the position of the first significant
figure.
 Interest is the cost of borrowing
money.

An interest rate is the cost stated as a

percent of the amount borrowed per period
of time, usually one year.
Simple interest is calculated on the
original principal only.
Compound interest is calculated each
period on the original principal and
all interest accumulated during past
periods.
Although the interest may be stated as a
yearly rate, the compounding periods can
be yearly, semi annually, quarterly, or even
continuously.
When the interest is compounded half-
yearly or quarterly the interest which
becomes due at the end of the year on a
loan is called the Effective Rate of
Interest.
The given rate for calculating interest for
half- yearly or quarterly is called the
Nominal Rate.
 𝑨
Present Value = 𝒓 𝒏
(𝟏+ )
𝟏𝟎𝟎
When Compound interest is considered.

𝑨
Present Value = 𝒏𝒓
𝟏+
𝟏𝟎𝟎
When Simple interest is considered.
1. The simple interest on a certain principal
for 5 years is Rs.360 and the interest is
9/25 of the principal. Find the principal and
the interest rate.
2. The population of a country increases every
year by 2.4 percent of the population at the
beginning of the year. In what time will the
population double itself? Answer to the
nearest year.
3. Compute the interest on Rs.1000 for 10
years at 4% per annum, the interest being
paid annually.
To honour any transaction it is necessary to
have documents like bill of exchange or
promissory note according to which the
debtor has to pay to the creditor a specified
sum of money on a specified date.
Two kinds of bills
1. Bill of exchange after date
2. Bill of exchange after sight
Face value is the value of
a coin, stamp or paper money, as printed
on the coin, stamp or bill itself by the
minting authority. While the face value
usually refers to the true value of the coin,
stamp or bill.
True Discount: The interest on the present
value is called True Discount
T.D = A – P or T.D = Pni
Where A – Total Amount
P – Principal

Banker’s Discount: The interest on sum due

is called Banker’s Discount.
B.D = Ani
Where A – Amount
n – number of years
i- interest percent
Banker’s Gain = B.D – T.D
Or
𝑨(𝒏𝒊)𝟐 𝑨𝒏𝒊
B.G = = 𝒏𝒊
(𝟏+𝒏𝒊) (𝟏+𝒏𝒊)

Banker’s gain is interest on true discount

B.G = 𝑻. 𝑫(𝒏𝒊)
The date on which the bill of exchange
becomes due is called the nominal due
date or simply due date.

There is a legal custom to allow 3 days of

grace from the due date to encash a bill. If
these days are added to the due date, we
get the date on which the bill becomes
legally due.
Find the date of drawing the bill.
Find the date of maturity.
Find the date on which the bill was
discounted.
Count the number of days from the date of
discount to the date of maturity.
Add three days grace period to this to give
the legal due date.
1. A bill of Rs.3,225 was drawn on 3rd
February 1965 at 6 months due date
and discounted on 13th March 1965 at
the rate of 8% per annum. For what
sum was the bill discounted and how
much did the banker gain in this?
2. The difference between true and
bankers discounts on a certain bill due in
4 months is 50 paise. If the rate of
interest is 6 percent, find the amount of
the bill.
Differential calculus can be considered as
mathematics of motion, growth and
change where there is a motion, growth,
change. Whenever there is variable forces
producing acceleration, differential calculus
is the right mathematics to apply.
Application of derivatives are used to
represent and interpret the rate at which
quantities change with respect to another
variable. Differential equations are
powerful tools for modeling data.
A differential equation is an equation
involving derivatives of an unknown
function and possibly the function itself as
well as the independent variable.

The order of a differential equation is the

highest order of the derivatives of the
unknown function appearing in the
equation
If y is a function of x, that is y = f(x), we write its
gradient function as 𝒅𝒚 .
𝒅𝒙

𝒅𝒚
if y = xn , then = 𝒏𝒙𝒏−𝟏
𝒅𝒙
If y=c, then 𝒅 (𝒄)
=𝟎
𝒅𝒙
Where c is a constant
 𝒅 (𝒙)
=𝟏
𝒅𝒙

𝒅 𝒆𝒂𝒙
= 𝒂𝒆𝒙
𝒅𝒙

𝒅 (𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙) 𝟏
=
𝒅𝒙 𝒙
𝒅(𝑼 + 𝑽) 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
= +
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙

𝒅(𝑼 − 𝑽) 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
= −
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
It is appropriate to use this rule when you
want to differentiate two functions which
are multiplied
together.
If u and v are functions of x, then

𝒅(𝑼𝑽) 𝒅𝑽 𝒅𝑼
= 𝑼. + 𝑽.
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙
If u and v are functions of x, then
In the rule which follows we let u stand for
the function in the numerator and v stand
for the
function in the denominator.

𝒅𝑼 𝒅𝑽
𝒅 𝑼 𝑽. − 𝑼.
= 𝒅𝒙 𝟐 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝒙 𝑽 𝑽
Let y be a function of u and u be a function of
x. Then

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒖
= .
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒙

Let y be a function of u, u is a function of v

and v is a function of x. Then
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗
= . .
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒖 𝒅𝒗 𝒅𝒙
Differentiate the following with respect to
x.
𝟕 𝟔 𝟐
• 𝒙 + 𝟕𝒙 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟏𝟓
• 𝟏+𝒙 𝟑 𝟏−𝒙 𝟕

• 𝒙 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒙
𝒆𝒙
The diagram below shows part of a
function y = f(x).
The point A is a local maximum and the
point B is a local minimum. At each of
these points the tangent to the curve is
parallel to the x-axis so the derivative of
the function is zero. Both of these points
are therefore stationary points of the
function. The term local is used since these
points are the maximum and minimum in
this particular region. There may be others
outside this region.
The rate of change of a function is
measured by its derivative. When the
derivative is positive, the function is
increasing, when the derivative is negative,
the function is decreasing. Thus the rate of
change of the gradient is measured by its
derivative, which is the second derivative
of the original function. In mathematical
notation this is as follows.
At the point (a, b)
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
If = 𝟎 and < 𝟎 then point(a,b)
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝟐 𝒙
is a local maximum.

𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚
If = 𝟎 and 𝟐 > 𝟎 then point(a,b) is a
𝒅𝒙 𝒅 𝒙

Local minimum.
There are two general rules:

𝒌𝒇(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒌 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙

𝒂𝒇 𝒙 + 𝒃𝒈(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒂 𝒇 𝒙 𝒅𝒙 + 𝒃 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒅𝒙

Few other rules:

𝒏+𝟏
𝒙
𝒙𝒏 𝒅𝒙 = +𝒄 (𝒏 ≠ −𝟏)
𝒏+𝟏
Other rules:
𝟏
𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒙 + 𝒄
𝒙

𝒆𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒄
Other standard results:
𝒏+𝟏
(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)
(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝒏 𝒅𝒙 = +𝒄 (𝒏 ≠ −𝟏)
𝒂(𝒏 + 𝟏)

𝟏 𝟏
𝒅𝒙 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃) + 𝒄
(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃) 𝒂

𝒆 𝒂𝒙+𝒃
𝒆𝒂𝒙+𝒃 𝒅𝒙 = +𝒄
𝒂
• Find the minimum average cost for the
average cost function 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎 − 𝟒𝒙𝟑 + 𝟑𝒙𝟒
and show that at the minimum average
cost, marginal cost and average cost are
equal.
• Integrate the following with respect to x.
1. 3x3+7x2-2x+1
2. (1-x)3
𝟏
3.
𝟏 + 𝟑𝒙
Definition of a Matrix: A
rectangular array of entries is called
a Matrix. The entries may be real,
complex or functions. The entries
are also called as the elements of the
matrix. The rectangular array of
entries are enclosed in an ordinary
bracket or in square bracket. Matrices
are denoted by capital letters.
Let A = [aij] be a square matrix.
A determinant formed by the same
array of elements of the square matrix A is
called the determinant of the square matrix
A and is denoted by the symbol det.A or
|A|.
The determinant of a square matrix will
be a scalar quantity. i.e., with a determinant
we associate a definite value, whereas a
matrix is essentially an arrangement of
numbers and has no value.
If the rows and columns of a determinant
are inter-changed, the value remains
unaltered.

If any two rows (columns) of a determinant

are identical, its value of the determinant is
zero.

If any two rows (columns) of a determinant

are interchanged, the value of the
determinant is (-1) times the original
determinant.
If all the elements of one row (column) of a
determinant is multiplied by k, the value of the
new determinant is k times the original
determinant.

If to any row or column of a determinant, a

multiple of another row or column is added, the
value of the determinant remains the same.

If some or all the elements of a row (or column)

of a determinant are expressed as sum of two (or
more) terms, then the determinant can be
expressed as sum of two or more determinants.
The sum of the products of the
elements of any row (column) with
their corresponding cofactors is equal
to the value of the determinant.

The sum of the products of the

elements of any row (column) and
the cofactors of the corresponding
elements of any other row (column)
is zero.
• Row Matrix
• Column Matrix
• Square Matrix
• Diagonal Matrix
• Scalar Matrix
• Identity or Unit Matrix
• Null Matrix or Zero matrix
• Upper triangular matrix
• Lower triangular matrix
• Transpose of a matrix
• Symmetric matrix
• Skew-symmetric matrix
Write all different types of Matrix
Only matrices of the same order
can be added or subtracted. The
result from the sum or difference
is then determined by adding or
subtracting the corresponding
elements.
 7 9 5   42 34 21
  
 3 6 3   13 16 18 

 7  42 9  34 5  21
 
 3  13 6  16 3  18 

 49 43 26 
 
 16 22 21 
Two matrices A and B are conformable
to matrix multiplication only if the
number of columns in A equals the
number of rows in B.

AB has the same number of rows as A

and the same number of columns as B.
The ijth element of AB is the inner
product of the ith row of A and jth
column of B.
 a11 a12 
  b11 b12 b13 
 a21 a22  
a   b21 b22 b23 
 31 a32 

 a11  b11  a12  b21 a11  b12  a12  b22 a11  b13  a12  b23 
 
  a21  b11  a22  b21 a21  b12  a22  b22 a21  b13  a22  b23 
a b  a b a31  b13  a32  b23 
 31 11 32 21 a31  b12  a32  b22
 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟓
If A =𝟑 𝟐 𝟔 −𝟒
𝟑 𝟒 𝟐 𝟖
𝟒 𝟕 𝟏 𝟖
B = −𝟐 𝟑 𝟔 𝟓
𝟏 𝟓 𝟎 𝟒

Find 1) A+B
2) A-B
 −𝟏 𝟎 𝟓
If A = 𝟐 𝟔 −𝟒
𝟒 𝟐 𝟖
𝟕 𝟏 𝟖
B= 𝟑 𝟔 𝟓
𝟓 𝟎 𝟒
Find 1) AB
2) BA
The inverse of a square matrix A
is a matrix whose product with A
is the identity matrix I.

The inverse matrix is denoted by

A-1.
The concept of “dividing” by A in
matrix algebra is replaced by the
concept of multiplying by the
inverse matrix A-1.
An inverse matrix A-1 has the
following properties:
A-1 A = A A-1 = I
A-1 unique for given A.
The (+1) and (–1) factors in the
expansion are decided on
according to the following rule:
If A is written in the form A = (aij),
the product of aij and its minor in the
expansion of determinant |A| is
multiplied by (–1)i+j.
Therefore, because the element 1 in
the example is the element a11, its
product with its minor is multiplied by
(–1)1+1 = +1. For element 2, which is a12,
its product with its minor is multiplied
by (–1)1+2= –1
The determinant of a square matrix of
order n, (that is, An×n = (aij); i, j = 1, 2, …,
n) is the sum of all possible products of
n elements of A such that each product
has one and only one element from every
row and column of A, the sign of a
product being (–1)i+j.
The determinant of a square matrix A,
denoted by |A|, is a polynomial of the
elements of a square matrix.

It is a scalar.

It is the sum of certain products of the

elements of the matrix from which it is
derived, each product being multiplied
by +1 or –1 according to certain rules
Consider the linear equation
a1x+b1y+c1z = d1
a2x+b2y+c2z = d2
a3x+b3y+c3z = d3
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏
Denote A= 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐
𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒄𝟑
 𝒙
X= 𝒚
𝒛
𝒅𝟏
E= 𝒅𝟐
𝒅𝟑

Then AX = E
X = A-1E
The rank of a matrix A is the order
of its largest non-zero minor.

Minor: The determinant of a

submatrix of order r of a given
matrix will be called a minor of
order r of the matrix.
Operations that can be performed
without altering the solution of a
linear system.
1. Change any two rows.
2. Multiply every element in a row
by a non-zero constant.
3. Add elements of one row to
corresponding elements of
another row.
Consider the linear equation
a1x+b1y+c1z = d1
a2x+b2y+c2z = d2
a3x+b3y+c3z = d3
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏 𝒅𝟏
Denote A = 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐 and B= 𝒅𝟐
𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒄𝟑 𝒅𝟑
The augmented matrix
𝒂𝟏 𝒃𝟏 𝒄𝟏 𝒅𝟏
AB = 𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒅𝟐
𝒂𝟑 𝒃𝟑 𝒄𝟑 𝒅𝟑

Find the rank of matrix A

1. Find the rank of augmented matrix
AB using row transformation.
2. Using row transformation, transform
the augmented matrix AB to an
Echelon matrix.
3. Write the system of equations
corresponding to the resulting
matrix.
4. Use back-substitution to find the
system’s solution
Test the consistency for the
following:
2x-y+z=4
x+y+z=3
3x-y-z=1