MODEL PENGAJARAN

Dr.Shahlan Surat

APAKAH PENGAJARAN?
Mengongsi pengetahuan
dengan orang lain
Mengenal pasti keperluan
atau kekurangan pelajar
Mencadangkan strategi
dan aktiviti untuk
memenuhi/mengatasi
keperluan /kekurangan
pelajar

Definition of Teaching
Instruction is the imparting of knowledge,
developing of skills and attitudes, and
meeting of special needs in various ways
ranging from structured to individualized
activities, including instructional support
activities which aid and enrich the
teaching-learning process.
( University of Wisconsin )

MODEL PENGAJARAN
APA ITU MODEL PENGAJARAN?
Strategi preskriptif yang direka bentuk
untuk mencapai matlamat pengajaran
Memberi struktur dan tuju hala
Panduan untuk membantu pelajar
mencapai pelbagai objektif

MODEL PENGAJARAN
Blueprint untuk pengajaran
A plan / pattern that we can use to design
face-to-face teaching in classrooms and to
shape instructional materials

MODEL PENGAJARAN
Model Ekspositori
Model Pemprosesan Maklumat
Model Projek
Model Inkuiri
Model Konstruktivisme

MODEL-MODEL
PENGAJARAN

MODEL
PEMPROSESAN
MAKLUMAT

INKUIRI
EKSPOSITORI

MODEL
BEHAVIORAL

MODEL
SOSIAL

PEMBELAJARAN
LANGSUNG

PEMBELAJARAN
KOOPERATIF

PEMBELAJARAN
MASTERI

MAIN PERANAN
& SIMULASI.

MODEL
PERSONAL

SYNECTICS

MODEL EKSPOSITORI
Guru mengawal pembelajaran
Guru menggunakan kaedah-kaedah
berikut:
Peneranagan (explanation)
Pengisahan (narration)
Latihan (practice)
Mengulang kaji (revision)

MODEL EKSPOSITORI
Pelajar belajar dalam bilik darjah
berpusatkan guru berdasarkan pengajaran
seluruh kelas dan interaksi verbal berlaku
khusus antara guru dan pelajar
Pengajaran ekspositori melibatkan
Penyusun awal
Penyampaian konsep
Contoh dan bukan contoh
Penakulan deduktif

Expository Teaching
David Ausubel Model
Advance organizer to begin the lesson
Concepts are presented by the teacher
Examples & Non-examples to clarify
the concept
Teacher refers back to advanced
organizer to link the organizer with the
concept in the lesson
This model emphasizes deductive
reasoning.

According to Ausubel, people acquire

knowledge primarily through RECEPTION
rather than through discovery.
Concepts, principles, and ideas are
presented and understood, not
discovered.
The more organized and focused the
presentation, the more thoroughly the
individual will learn.
He stresses MEANINGFUL VERBAL
LEARNING .

Rote memory, for example, is not considered

meaningful since memorization omits the
connection of new knowledge with existing
knowledge.
Ausubel also proposed his EXPOSITORY
TEACHING model to encourage meaningful
rather than rote reception learning.
In his approach to learning, teachers present
material in a carefully organized, sequenced,
and finished form.
Ausubel believes that learning should progress
deductively - from the general to the specific and not inductively as Bruner recommended.

Ausubel dictates the use of his most famous

contribution to cognitive educational psychology:
the ADVANCED ORGANIZER.
Optimal learning generally occurs when there is
a potential fit between the student's schemas
and the material to be learned.
To foster this association, Ausubel suggests that
the lesson always begin with an advanced
organizer
The function of the advanced organizer is to
provide SCAFFOLDING or support for the new
information

(1)
(2)
(3)

Advance Organisers serve three

purposes:
they direct attention to what is important
in the coming material;
they highlight relationships among ideas
that will be presented; and,
they remind the student of relevant
information already in memory.

Steps in an Expository Lesson

Use Advanced Organizers.
Use a variety of examples
Focus on both similarities and
differences
For those who are more concrete in
their learning, use a graphic
representation of an advanced
organizer:

Benefits:
Good for presenting concepts,
especially abstract
Focus is on comparison and contrast
thinking
Higher level yet teacher directed

Limits:
Requires teacher skills for linking
advanced organizer with targeted
concept(s), pointing out similarities
and differences
Some abstract concepts may be too
challenging for concrete thinkers.

Final Comments on Expository Teaching.

Expository teaching works better in some
situations than in others.
It is most appropriate when you want to teach
about the relationships among several concepts.
Students must have some knowledge of the
actual concepts first.
Another consideration is the age of the students
more useful for mature students

MODEL PEMPROSESAN MAKLUMAT

Mendekati pembelajaran melalui kajian ingatan
Pembelajaran adalah pemprosesan maklumat
Gagne : guru perlu tahu apa yang berlaku dalam
pemikiran pelajar
Guru perlu tahu bagaimana otak menerima dan
memproses maklumat baru supaya boleh
menyampaikan maklunat baru dalam cara yang
paling berkesan

MODEL PEMPROSESAN MAKLUMAT

Human mind takes in information, performs operations on
it to change its form and content, stores the information,
retrieves it when needed and generates responses to it
Pelajar akan ingat maklumat yang mereka memproses
(manipulate, look at it at different perspectives and analyse
it)

MODEL PEMPROSESAN MAKLUMAT

Tiga komponen MPM
Deria (Sensory Register)
Ingatan jangka pendek
Ingatan jangka panjang
Maklumat yang diterima melalui deria,
diproses dan diberi makna - pengamatan

MODEL PEMPROSESAN MAKLUMAT

Maklumat

Ingatan
Jangka
Pendek
Tidak
dikodkan

Lupaan

Berjaya dikodkan

Ingatan
Jangka
Panjang

MODEL PEMPEROSESAN MAKLUMAT

MODEL PEMPROSESAN MAKLUMAT

INGATAN JANGKA PENDEK
Komponen di mana maklumat terhad disimpan
selama beberapa saat sahaja
7 (+/- 2) item/chunk
Apabila melebehi had maklumat baru akan
mengganti maklumat lama (lupaan berlaku)
Dikenali sebagai ingatan aktif (working memory)
Menerima maklumat dari deria & Ingatan Jangka
Panjang

MODEL PEMPROSESAN MAKLUMAT

INGATAN JANGKA PANJANG

Penyimpanan yang kekal
Tiga bahagian ingatan jangka panjang
Ingatan Episodik Penyimpanan imej
Ingatan Semantik - Penyimpanan fakta,
konsep, prinsip, kemahiran penyelesaian
masalah, strategi pembelajaran
-Disimpan secara schemata
Ingatan Prosedural Bagaimana membuat
sesuatu

MODEL PEMPROSESAN MAKLUMAT

Levels of Processing Theory
Information that has been processed thoroughly will be
retained
Dual Code Theory
Use of visual & verbal code
Parallel-Distributed Processing Theory
Information is processed simultaneously in Sensory
Register ,STM & LTM
Transfer Appropriate Processing Theory
Memory is stronger & lasts longer when conditions of
performance are similar to those under which learning
occurred

MODEL PEMPROSESAN MAKLUMAT

Pembentukan konsep
Pemikiran induktif
Perkembangan intelek
Latihan inkuiri
Belajar daripada penyampaian

MODEL PROJEK
Model Projek merujuk kepada strategistrategi pengajaran guru yang
membolehkan guru membimbing pelajar
mengkaji secara mendalam tentang topiktopik sebenar
Model- berstruktur
Kerangka pengajaran-pembelajaran:
Kompleks
Fleksibel

MODEL PROJEK
Project: An in-depth investigation of a real world
topic worthy of childrens attention and effort
Dijalankan secara kelas atau kumpulan kecil
Dilaksanakan oleh pelajar muda atau dewasa
Susulan kepada program pendidikan
Dibuat secara hands-on atau dikaji secara firsthand
Hasil kajian disampaikan dalam pelbagai cara
Peluang mengaplikasi pengetahuan &
kemahiran bahasa dan matematik

Group Size and Method of Formation

The projects will be performed by teams of
between 4 and 6 students.
Assignment of students to teams will be carried
out by the teacher
Students may nominate other individuals they
would prefer to work with, and may also identify
those they would prefer not to work with.
These preferences will be taken into
consideration but should not be seen as binding.
Every effort will be made to assign students to
projects that fall into their list of preferences.

Class Contact Requirements

There will be an agreed number of class
contact per week, which can be broken
up into:
I. lectures/seminars on relevant topics;
II. individual group tutorials with the team
assessor concentrating on monitoring
progress ;
III. formal inspections of work in progress; and
IV. formal status reports and post-project
review reports.

Formal Inspections
Formal inspections of work in progress are a
central feature of the project method.
The inspections are not assessed; the
documents reviewed at inspections are the
assessment items.
While the inspections are not assessed, failure
to participate in a designated inspection will
carry an assessment penalty.
The purpose of the inspections is to provide
guidance and quality control .
The inspections are a primary teaching tool in
the subject.

MODEL PROJEK
Kriteria Pemilihan Topik Projek
Membina pengetahuan pelajar
Memahami dunia mereka
Memahami satu sama lain dengan lebihnya
Menghargai kepentingan bahasa dan
matematik dalam konteks kehidupan
sebenar
Mencari sumber maklumat di luar sekolah
Menggalakkan komunikasi dengan ibu bapa

Benefits of the Project Method

Projects:
Provide authentic practice: students are
able to see the relevance to the real world
of what they are learning.
Provide variety for students and teachers they get out of the classroom and 'into' the
environment.
Integrate the multiple skills' for e.g
reading, writing, speaking and listening in
a natural way.

Promote learner autonomy and cooperation.

Provide practice across the curriculum eg. art, history, geography, biology, etc.
Provide a sensory rich learning
experience. Learning is enhanced when
students see as well as listen (audiovisual)
- they remember even more when they
can also use their senses of touch, smell
and taste.

DISADVANTAGES
1. Loss of time in ground covered due to
discussion. Some however, feel it to be
distinctly worthwhile; a question of relative
values.
2. Loss of time due to needless discussion,
3. A lack of continuous and severe mental
work.

4. The slower student seems to demand more

definiteness in the daily assignments.
5. Getting beyond the ability of the pupils so that
they talk about things without clearly
understanding them.
6. Certain required subject-matter not studied.
7. Non-participation on part of some members of
the class is greater by this method.
8. Encourages the expression of opinion not
founded on sufficient knowledge.

MODEL PROJEK
Five Structural Features of the Project
Approach
Discussion

Fieldwork

Representation

Investigation

Display

Advantage provides framework/guidelines

Disadvantage involves constraint
Children can approach their work in unique
and flexible ways while working within the
general framework

CONSTRUCTIVISM
Constructivism is an approach to teaching
and learning based on the premise that
cognition (learning) is the result of "mental
construction."
In other words, students learn by fitting
new information together with what they
already know

Caine and Caine (1991) suggest that

brain-compatible teaching is based on
12 principles:
1. "The brain is a parallel processor" . It

simultaneously processes many different

types of information, including thoughts,
emotions, and cultural knowledge. Effective
teaching employs a variety of learning
strategies.
2. "Learning engages the entire physiology" .
Teachers can't address just the intellect.

"The search for meaning is innate" . Effective

teaching recognizes that meaning is personal
and unique, and that students' understandings
are based on their own unique experiences.
4. "The search for meaning occurs through
'patterning' " . Effective teaching connects
isolated ideas and information with global
concepts and themes.
5. "Emotions are critical to patterning" . Learning
is influenced by emotions, feelings, and
attitudes.
3.

6. "The brain processes parts and wholes

simultaneously" . People have difficulty

learning when either parts or wholes are
overlooked.
7. "Learning involves both focused
attention and peripheral perception" .
Learning is influenced by the
environment, culture, and climate.
8. "Learning always involves conscious and
unconscious processes" . Students need
time to process 'how' as well as 'what'
they've learned.

"We have at least two different types of

memory: a spatial memory system, and a set
of systems for rote learning" .
Teaching that heavily emphasizes rote learning
does not promote spatial, experienced learning
and can inhibit understanding.
10. "We understand and remember best when
facts and skills are embedded in natural,
spatial memory" . Experiential learning is most
effective.
9.

11. "Learning is enhanced by challenge and

inhibited by threat" . The classroom

climate should be challenging but not
threatening to students.
12. "Each brain is unique" . Teaching must
be multifaceted to allow students to
express preferences.

The following section presents a synthesis and

summary of the characteristics of constructivist
learning and teaching
Multiple perspectives and representations of
concepts and content are presented and
encouraged.
2. Goals and objectives are derived by the
student or in negotiation with the teacher or
system.
3. Teachers serve in the role of guides, monitors,
coaches, tutors and facilitators.
4. Activities, opportunities, tools and
environments are provided to encourage
metacognition, self-analysis -regulation,
-reflection & -awareness.
1.

5.
6.

7.
8.
9.

The student plays a central role in mediating

and controlling learning.
Learning situations, environments, skills,
content and tasks are relevant, realistic,
authentic and represent the natural
complexities of the 'real world'.
Primary sources of data are used in order to
ensure authenticity and real-world complexity.
Knowledge construction and not reproduction
is emphasized.
This construction takes place in individual
contexts and through social negotiation,
collaboration and experience.

10. Learners are provided with the opportunity for

11.

12.

13.
14.

apprenticeship learning in which there is an

increasing complexity of tasks, skills and
knowledge acquisition.
Knowledge complexity is reflected in an
emphasis on conceptual interrelatedness and
interdisciplinary learning.
Collaborative and cooperative learning are
favoured in order to expose the learner to
alternative viewpoints.
Scaffolding is facilitated to help students
perform just beyond the limits of their ability.
Assessment is authentic and interwoven with
teaching.

15. The learner's previous knowledge

constructions, beliefs and attitudes are

considered in the knowledge construction
process.
16. Problem-solving, higher-order thinking skills
and deep understanding are emphasized.
17. Errors provide the opportunity for insight
into students' previous knowledge
constructions.
18. Exploration is a favoured approach in order
to encourage students to seek knowledge
independently and to manage the pursuit of
their goals.

INQUIRY METHOD
Questioning is the heart of inquiry
learning.
Students must ask relevant questions and
develop ways to search for answers and
generate explanations.
Emphasis is placed upon the process of
thinking as students interact with issues,
data, topics, concepts, materials and
problems.

 Divergent thinking is encouraged and

nurtured as students recognize that
questions often have more than one
"good" or "correct" answer
Such thinking leads in many instances
to the development of additional
questions.

Students become actively involved in the

learning process as they:
act upon their curiosity and interests
develop questions
think their way through controversies or
dilemmas
look at problems analytically
inquire into their preconceptions and what
they already know
develop, clarify and test hypotheses
draw inferences and generate possible
solutions.

Inquiry cycle

Ask
It begins with the desire to discover.
Meaningful questions are inspired by genuine
curiosity about real world experiences. A
question or a problem comes into focus at this
stage, and the learner begins to define or
describe what it is.

Investigate
Taking the curious impulse and putting it into action
is what is in this second stage. At this stage the
learner begins to gather information : researching
resources, studying, crafting an experiment,
observing, or interviewing, to name a few.
The learner may recast the question, refine a line of
query, or plunge down a new path that the original
question did not or could not anticipate.

Create
The learner begins to make connections. The ability
at this stage to synthesize meaning is the creative
spark that forms all new knowledge. The learner
now undertakes the creative task of shaping
significant new thoughts, ideas, and theories outside
of his/her experience.

Discuss
Learners share their new ideas with others. The
learner begins to ask others about their own
experiences and investigations. Shared knowledge is
a community-building process, and the meaning of
their investigation begins to take on greater
relevance in the context of the learners society.
Comparing notes, discussing conclusions, and
sharing experiences are all examples of this process
in action.

Reflect
Reflection is just that : taking time to look back at
the question, the research path, and the conclusions
made. The learner steps back, takes inventory,
makes observations, and possibly makes new
decisions. Has solution been found ? Do new
questions comes into light? What might those
questions be ?

Model Inkuiri Suchman

Diperkenalkan oleh Richard Suchman
Tujuan : Membantu pelajar membuat
inkuiri secara bebas, tetapi mengikut
cara yang berdisiplin
Beliau mahukan pelajar menanyakan
sebab sesuatu peristiwa berlaku dan
memproses data secara logis

Langkah-langkah di dalam
Model Inkuiri Suchman
Memilih masalah
Menerangkan proses
Mengumpul data dan membuat
hipotesis
Menguji hipotesis dan membentuk teori
Membincangkan peraturan-peraturan
Menganalisis proses

Langkah-langkah di dalam
Model Inkuiri Suchman
Memilih masalah
Menerangkan proses
Mengumpul data dan membuat
hipotesis
Menguji hipotesis dan membentuk teori
Membincangkan peraturan-peraturan
Menganalisis proses

Langkah 2 : Menerangkan Proses

Masalah Inkuiri Kepada Kelas
Guru akan menerangkan proses inkuiri
kepada kelas agar semua pelajar boleh
mengambil bahagian
Masalah yang telah dipilih dibacakan
atau diedarkan sebagai lembaran kerja

Langkah 3 : Mengumpul Data yang

Relevan dengan Masalah
Pelajar hendaklah mengumpulkan maklumat
atau data yang berkaitan
Mereka dibenarkan berbincang atau merujuk
kepada bahan rujukan
Mereka boleh bertanya kepada guru yang
hanya akan memberi jawapan ya atau tidak
Berdasarkan data, pelajar akan membentuk
satu hipotesis

Langkah 4 : Membentuk teori

Pada peringkat ini, pelajar akan
menguji hipotesis yang dibuat
Jika hipotesis benar, ia akan diterima
sebagai teori

Langkah 5:Membincangkan
Peraturan & Menerangkan Teori
Pelajar akan diminta menerangkan teori
yang diterima sebagai penyelesaian
kepada masalah.
Mereka juga perlu menerangkan
peraturan yang berkaitan dengan teori
itu.

Langkah 6 : Menganalisis
proses
Pelajar diminta meneliti semula proses
inkuiri yang telah digunakan untuk
membentuk teori tersebut.
Mereka boleh memikirkan cara untuk
mencapai penyelesaian dalam masa
yang lebih singkat atau cara untuk
memperbaiki proses.

Implikasi ke atas P&P

Masalah yang dikemukakan mesti sejajar
dengan kebolehan pelajar
Penglibatan pelajar ditekankan
Sifat ingin tahu pelajar perlu sentiasa dipupuk
Pelajar dilatih menggunakan pelbagai strategi
penyelesaian masalah
Guru hendaklah mempelbagaikan aspekaspek di mana penyelidikan boleh dijalankan
Peranan guru sebagai fasilitator.

PEMBELAJARAN
MASTERI

PEMBELAJARAN MASTERI
(a)Konsep Pembelajaran Masteri
(b) Mengapa perlunya Pembelajaran Masteri?
(c) Prinsip Pembelajaran Masteri
(d) Ciri-ciri Pembelajaran Masteri
(e) Model Pembelajaran Masteri
(f)Langkah Pembelajaran Masteri

Apakah Pembelajaran Masteri?

merupakan satu pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran
yang berfokuskan penguasaan murid dalam suatu perkara yang
diajar.
(Bloom, 1968)
berasaskan kepada falsafah bahawa semua atau hampir
semua murid boleh menguasai sesuatu pengetahuan atau
kemahiran dengan baik dan penuh keyakinan sekiranya
keadaan yang sesuai dan masa yang mencukupi disediakan
untuk murid itu menguasai pembelajarannya.
(Bloom, 1968)
ialah satu set idea dan amalan pengajaran secara individu
yang dapat membantu murid untuk belajar secara konsisten
idea dan amalan ini menghasilkan pengajaran yang sistematik,
membantu murid apabila menghadapi masalah pembelajaran,
memperuntukkan masa yang mencukupi untuk murid mencapai
masteri dengan berpandukan kriteria masteri yang jelas.
(Andeson & Block 1975)

Pembelajaran Masteri boleh dirumuskan sebagai:Suatu pendekatan pengajaran dan pembelajaran untuk
memastikan semua murid menguasai hasil pembelajaran yang
dihasratkan dalam suatu unit pembelajaran sebelum berpindah
ke unit pembelajaran seterusnya. Pendekatan ini memerlukan
peruntukan masa yang mencukupi dan proses pengajaran dan
pembelajaran yang berkualiti.

Mengapakah Pembelajaran Masteri?

i- Murid mempunyai kebolehan dan keperluan yang berbeza.
ii- Murid memerlukan pendekatan pembelajaran yang sesuai
dan berkesan.
iii- Murid mesti menguasai pengetahuan, kemahiran dan
sikap yang diajarkan.

Prinsip Pembelajaran Masteri:i- Murid normal boleh mempelajari apa yang

diajarkan guru.
iiPembelajaran
dipecahkan
kepada
beberapa unit kecil supaya mudah dikuasai.
iii- Murid memerlukan masa yang mencukupi
untuk
menguasai
sesuatu
hasil
pembelajaran yang ditentukan.
iv- Arahan pengajaran dan pembelajaran bagi
setiap unit pembelajaran mestilah jelas.

Ciri-ciri Pembelajaran Masteri:i- Hasil pembelajaran perlulah ditentukan.

ii- Hasil pembelajaran disusun mengikut hierarki atau unit
pembelajaran.
iii-Aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran hendaklah
bermakna, berkesan, menarik dan menggembirakan.
iv- Penilaian berasaskan Ujian Rujukan Kriteria (URK)
v- Bahan pengajaran dan pembelajaran yang sesuai dan
berkaitan.
vi-Murid perlu menguasai 80% aras masteri yang ditetapkan
setiap unit pembelajaran sebelum berpindah ke unit
pembelajaran yang baru.

vii- Aktiviti pemulihan dilaksanakan untuk murid yang belum

menguasai aras masteri.
viii Aktiviti pengayaan dilaksanakan untuk murid yang telah
mencapai aras masteri.
Model Pembelajaran Masteri
Dalam pembelajaran masteri terdapat beberapa langkah
yang perlu dilaksanakan. Langkah tersebut digambarkan
melalui model di bawah:-

Unit Pembelajaran 1

Penentuan Hasil
Pembelajaran

Pengajaran dan
Pembelajaran

Penilaian

Tindakan
Susulan Aktiviti
Pengayaan

Ya

Sudahkah murid
menguasai?

Ya

Tidak

Tindakan
Susulan Aktiviti
Pemulihan

Teruskan
Unit Pembelajaran 2

Langkah Pembelajaran Masteri:i- Penentuan hasil pembelajaran.

ii- Pengajaran dan pembelajaran.
iii- Penilaian
iv- Tindakan susulan

Penentuan Hasil Pembelajaran

Hasil pembelajaran merupakan objektif pembelajaran
yang perlu dikuasai oleh murid pada akhir sesuatu unit
pembelajaran. Hasil pembelajaran perlu ditentukan bagi:i- Mengenal pasti apa yang perlu dikuasai olrh murid.
ii- Memberi tumpuan dalam penguasaan hasil
pembelajaran
iii- Merancang pelbagai kaedah dan bahan bantu belajar.
iv- Membantu membina ujian formatif dan sumatif.

Bagaimanakah hasil pembelajaran

dinyatakan?
i- Berdasarkan sukatan pelajaran.
Ii- Dalam bentuk tingkah laku yang boleh
diperhatikan dan diukur.
Iii- Secara eksplisit, jelas dan terperinci.
Iv- Dalam domain kognitif, afektif dan
psikomotor.
V- Mengikut aras pembelajaran dari mudah
kepada sukar.

Penentuan Pengajaran dan Pembelajaran

Semasa merancang aktiviti pengajaran dan pembelajaran
guru harus mengambil kira perkara berikut:i- Kebolehan dan keupayaan murid berbeza-beza.
ii- Kepelbagaian kaedah pengajaran dan pembelajaran.
iii- Kemudahan yang sedia ada.
iv- Masa yang diperuntukkan.

Kenali Murid
Sahsiah seseorang murid mempengaruhi
gaya pembelajaran. Justeru, guru perlu
mengenal pasti sahsiah murid bagi
merancang kaedah dan bahan pengajaran
bagi mencapai hasil pembelajaran yang
ditetapkan.