SINGLE CELL PROTEIN

What is single cell protein ?

Single cell protein ( SCP ) refers to the microbial

biomass or total protein extracted from pure
microbial cell culture (monoculture) which can be
used as protein supplement for humans or animals.
The term SCP is appropriate since most of the
microorganisms grow as single or filamentious
individuals. This is in contrast to complete
multicellular plants and animals.
If the SCP is suitable for human consumption it is
called food grade and if it is fit for consumption
only by animals, then its called feed grade.

SCP refers broadly to microbial biomass or protein

extract used as food or feed additive.
Besides high protein content (about 60-80 % of dry cell
weight), SCP also contains fats, carbohydrates, nucleic
acids, vitamins and minerals.
It is rich in certain essential amino acids (lysine,
methionine) which are usually limiting in most plant and
animal foods.
About 25 % of the worlds population currently suffers
from hunger and malnutrition. Thus SCP deserves
serious consideration for its use as a food or feed
additive.
SCP can also be used for isolation of several compounds
like carbohydrates,fats, vitamins and minerals.

Advantages of using microorganisms

for SCP production

Microorganisms grow at a very rapid rate under

optimal conditions. Some microbes double their mass
in less than 30 minutes.
The quality and quantity of protein content in
microorganisms is better compared to higher plants
and animals.
A wide range of raw materials, which are otherwise
wasted, can be fruitfully used for SCP production.
The culture conditions and fermentation processes are
very simple.
Microorganisms can be easily handled, and subjected
to genetic manipulations.

High growth rate

Organism
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Bacteria and Yeasts

Molds and Algae
Grass and other plants
Chickens
Pigs
Cattle
People

Mass doubling
10-120 mins
2-6 hr
1-2 wks
2-4 wks
4-6 wks
1-2 months
0.2-0.5 yr

High protein content

Organism

Amount of
protein

1. Beef cattle

1 kg

2. Soybeans

10 kg

3. Yeast

100 tons

4. Bacteria

100 10,000,000 tons

Safety, acceptibility and toxicology of

SCP

The nucleic acid content of microbial

biomass is very high (4-6% in algae; 1015 % in bacteria; 5-10% in yeast). This is
highly hazardous, since humans have a
limited capacity to degrade nucleic acids.
The presence of carcinogenic and other
toxic substances is often associated with
SCP. These include the hydrocarbons,
mycotoxins and some contaminants.
There is possibility of contamination of
pathogenic microorganisms in the SCP.

The digestion of microbial cells is rather

slow. This is frequently associated with
indigestion and allergic reactions.
Food grade SCP production is more
expensive than some other sources of
protein like soy meal. Food grade SCP
production is 10 times more expensive
than feed grade SCP production.

Microorganisms used in SCP production

Several microorganisms that include

bacteria, yeasts, fungi, algae and
actinomycetes utilizing a wide range of
substrates are used in the production of
SCP.
The selection of microorganisms for SCP
production is based on several criteria.
These include the nutritive value, nonpathogenic nature, production cost, raw
materials used and growth pattern.

Comparison of organisms

Fung Algae Yeast BacterIa

i
Protein

30-45

40-60

45-55

50-65

Fat

2-8

7-20

2-6

1.5-3

Ash

9-14

8-10

5-9.5

3-7

NA

7-10

3-8

6-12

8-12

Substrates used in SCP production

The nature of raw materials used is very crucial

for production. The cost of raw material
significantly influences the final cost of SCP. The
commonly used SCP can be categorised asHigh-enery sources e.g. alkanes, methane,
methanol, ethanol, gas-oil.
Waste products e.g. molasses, whey, sewage,
animal manures, straw, bagasse.
Agricultural and foresty sources e.g.
cellulose, lignin.
Carbon dioxide, the simplest carbon source.

General production of SCP

involves
1. Provision of a carbon source; it may need
physical and/or chemical pretreatments.
2. Addition, to the carbon source, of sources
of nitrogen, phosphorus and other nutrients
needed to support optimal growth of the
selected microorganism.
3. Prevention of contamination by maintaining
sterile or hygienic conditions. The medium
components may be heated or sterilized by
filtration and fermentation equipments may
be sterilized.

4. The selected microorganism is inoculated in a

pure state.
5. SCP processes are highly aerobic (except those
using algae).
Therefore, adequate aeration must be provided.
In addition, cooling is necessary as considerable
heat is generated.
6. The microbial biomass is recovered from the
medium.
7. Processing of the biomass for enhancing its
usefulness and/or storability.

Type of fermenter

Since the fermenter is the vessel in which the

biochemical conversion of substrates into
biomass takes place , the design has great
impact on the process conditions.

High technology SCP processes are characterized

by large fermentation volume, continuous mode of
operation, high O2 demand and low energy input.
The conventional fermenters was not able to fulfil
these demands, and new fermenter designs were
suggested.
The basic type of modern SCP fermenters is the air
lift loop fermenter.

Conventional stirred
vessels

Modern loop reactors

1.High energy costs(10 k W/m)

1.Low energy costs(2 k W/m)

2.Intrafermenter cooling(jacket)

2.Extrafermenter cooling(plate
exchanger)

3.Complicated heat removal

3.Easy removal of the fermentation

heat load

4.Limited scale-up

4.Less limited scale-up

5.Indefinite mixing

5.More definite mixing

6.Cell yield on oxygen of 1020%,hence requiring high aeration

rate

6.Cell yield on oxygen of 4050%,hence requiring less aeration

7.Low yield and productivity

7.High yield and productivity

8.Limited control

8.Efficient control

9.Moving parts(easily contaminated)

9.No moving parts

10.Expensive capital and running

costs

10.Cheaper to install and run

Pressure cycle fermenter

A pressure-cycle fermenter is a
tower/loop fermenter of large
dimensions : the column of medium is
high (>30 metres) so that high
hydrostatic pressure is generated at the
bottom of the column where air is
sparged in. the high hydrostatic pressure
increases the solubility of oxygen in the
medium, incresing the aeration capacity.
At the top of the riser the slow upward
flow rate in the expanded top and
lowered hydrostatic pressure promotes
bubble disengagement, and CO2 is
expelled.

The medium flows

back down the
downcomer and
completes the
cycle. The
advantage of such
a fermenter is that
it produces high
aeration capacities
without having
moving parts, but it
is not possible to
have small ones
because a tall

Production of SCP from

High Energy Sources

There are a large number of energy-rich

carbon compounds or their derivatives
which serve as raw materials for SCP
production.
These include alkanes, methane,
methanol, ethanol and gas oil.
Bacteria and yeasts are mostly
employed for SCP production from high
energy sources.

Production from Alkanes

Alkanes can be degraded by many yeasts, certain

bacteria and fungi. Certain yeasts have been
successfully used like Saccharomycopsis
lipolytica, Candida tropicalis, Candida oleophila.
Oil companies use petroleum products to obtain SCP
using yeasts. They areGas oil or diesel oil containing 10-20 % of alkanes
with carbon length C15-C30
Short chain alkanes with carbon length in the
range of C10-C17, isolated from gas oil by use of
molecular sieves.

How are alkanes degraded??

Alkanes have to be broken down to appropriate

metabolites for their utilization to form SCP.
There are 2 pathways to introduce oxygen into alkanes.
In Terminal oxidation, the terminal carbon gets
oxidised to the corresponding monocarboxylic acid. The
latter then undergoes beta-oxidation to form acetic acid.
Sometimes both the terminal carbons get oxidised to
form dicarboxylic acid. This is known as omegaoxidation. This can be further broken down to acetate
and succinate by beta-oxidation.
Terminal oxidation is the predominant pathway occuring
in most yeasts and bacteria.

Subterminal oxidation involves the

oxidation of interminal carbon atoms (any
carbon other than the terminal). The
corresponding ketone produced undergoes
alpha-oxidation, decarboxylation, and
finally beta-oxidation to form acetate and
propionate.
The individual enzymes responsible for
terminal oxidation or subterminal
oxidation have not been fully identified.

Production from Methane

Certain bacteria that can utilize methane for SCP

production are Methylococcus capsulatus,
Methylomonas methanica, Methylovibrio
soehngenii.
Till now yeasts that can utilize methane have not
been found.
The bacterial enzyme methane oxygenase
oxidises methane methanol formaldehyde
formic acid.
Although methane was extensively researched for
its use as a source of SCP, it is not widely used
because handling, transportation of methane (an
explosive gas) are very difficult and expensive.

Limitations in using Alkanes

The major limitation of alkanes is that they are

not easily soluble, hence they cannot enter the
cells rapidly. It is believed that the cells produce
emulsifying substances which convert insoluble
alkanes into small droplets (0.01- 0.05 um) that
can enter the cells by passive diffusion.
It is observed that when cells are grown on a
medium of alkanes enriched with lipids, the
diffusion of alkanes into the cells is enhanced.
Carcinogens are also formed along with the
production of SCP which is undesirable.

Production from Methanol

Methanol as a carbon source for SCP has several

advantages over alkanes and methane. Methanol is easily
soluble in aqueous phase at all concentrations and no
residue of it remains in the microbial biomass.
Methanol can be easily handled.
The sources for methanol are natural gas, coal, oil and
methane.
Many species of bacteria (Methylobacter, Arthrobacter,
Bacillus, Pseudomonas, Vibrio) yeasts (Candida biodinii,
Hansenula sp, Torulopsis sp) and fungi ( Trichoderma
lignorum, Gliocladium delinquescens) are capable of
producing SCP from methanol.
Bacteria are mostly preferred as they require simple
fermentation conditions, grow rapidly and possess high
protein content.

Oxidation of Methanol

The products obtained from methanol have to form

C3 compounds (such as pyruvate) for final
production of SCP.
Carbon dioxide formed from methanol can be utilized
by photosynthetic organisms for the formation of
ribulose diphosphate. Alternately, formaldehyde may
condense with ribulose 5-phosphate to form 3-keto
6-phosphohexulose which then gives fructose 6phosphate and finally pyruvate. This pathway is
referred to ribulose monophosphate pathway.
Formaldehyde can condense with glycine to form
serine which in a series of reactions forms
phosphoenol pyruvate. This is called Serine
pathway.

Production Process

Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI), U.K. was the first

company to develop a process for continuous
methanol fermentation for large scale production of
SCP.
ICI employed Methylophilus methylotrophus for
producing SCP from methanol. A bioreactor referred
to as ICI pressure cycle fermenter was used for this
purpose. This fermenter has three components
airlift column, down-flow tube and gas release space.
The operation was carried out at temperature 35-37
C and pH 6.5-7. the cells were subjected to disruption
by heat or acid treatment. The nutrient solution can
be clarified by decanting.
The SCP produced by ICI was called ICI pruteen.

Production from Wastes

The waste products formed in various industries

and other bilogical processes like molasses, whey,
animal manures, sewage, straw, date wastes can
be used for the production of SCP.
However there has been not much success in the
production from wastes because of transportation
costs and technical difficulties.
The technology adopted and the organism
employed for SCP production depends on the waste
being used as the substrate. Thus, Saccharomyces
cerevisiae is used for molasses, Kluyveromyces
fragilis for cheese whey.

Pekilo a fungal protein rich product

A filamentous fungus, Paecilomyces variotii, with

good fibrous structure was used for the
production of Pekilo. This protein, rich in fungal
biomass, was produced by fermentation of
wastes such as molasses, whey, sulfite liquor
and agricultural wastes.
It can be produced by a continuous fermentation
process. Pekilo is rich in proteins (containing
essential amino acids), vitamins and minerals.
It was used as an animal feed in supplementing
the diets of calves, pigs, chickens and hens
without any adverse effects.

Production of SCP from wood

The natural waste wood sources containing

cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin are attractive
natural sources for the production of SCP. It is
however, essential to breakdown these cellosic
compounds into fermentable sugars.
For this purpose, extracellular cellulases can be
used. Certain bacteria ( Cellulomonas sp) and fungi
(Trichoderma s,p, Penicillium sp) are good sources
for cellulases.
Techniques for the production of cellulases have
been well standardised from several organisms. The
cost of production of cellulase is a critical factor in
determining the ultimate production cost of SCP.

Production of SCP from CO2

Certain algae grown in open ponds require only CO2

as the carbon source. In the presence of sunlight,
they can effectively carry out photosynthesis, and
produce SCP.
The examples of these algae are Chlorella sp,
Senedesmus sp, and Spirulina sp. Chlorella is used
as a protein and vitamin supplement for enriching
ice-creams, breads and yoghurts.
Traditionally Spirulina sp have been eaten by people
in some parts of Africa and Mexico. It has protein
(65%), carbohydrates (20%), fat (4%), fibre (3%),
chlorophyll (5%), ash(3%). Good food grade SCP.

Production of SCP from sewage

Domestic sewage is normally used for large scale

production of methane, which in turn may be utilized
for the production of SCP.
The sewage obtained from industrial wastes in
cellulose processing, starch production and food
processing can be utilized for the production of SCP.
The organism Candida utilis is used to produce SCP
by using effluent formed during the course of paper
manufacture.
Other microorganisms namely Candida tropicalis,
Paecilomyces varioti are employed to use sulfite
waste liqour for the production of SCP.

Recovery of the product

1.DEWATERING
Centrifugation
Filtrationplate,frame,sand,
vacuum filter and
filter aids

2.CELL
TREATMENT
High pressure
homogenizer
High pressure press

Evaporation

Shear in evaporation

Flotation-foam
flotation

Shear in drying
Freeze thawing

Sedimentation

Sonication

Flocculationautoflocculation
Genetic modification,
pH
Chemicals:nickel

Autolysischemical,enzymatic

3.DEHYDRATI
ON
Sun drying
Fluidized-bed
drying
Drum dryingsingle drum
double drum
Spray drying
Tray drying

Chemical extraction

Freeze drying

Ball mill dry cells

Pneumatic ring
drying

Final Product