Classroom presentations

to accompany
Understanding Earth, 3rd edition
preparedby
PeterCopelandandWilliamDupr
UniversityofHouston
Chapter 19
Exploring Earths Interior

Exploring Earths
Interior

Structure of the Earth

Seismic velocity depends on the
composition of material and pressure.
We can use the behavior of seismic
waves to tell us about the interior of the
Earth.
When waves move from one material to
another they change speed and
direction.

Refraction

Refraction
and
Reflection
of a
Beam of
Light

Reflection

Fig. 19.1

P-wave
Shadow
Zone

Fig. 19.2a

S-wave
Shadow
Zone

Fig. 19.2b

P-and S-wave Pathways Through

Earth

Fig. 19.3

Seismograph Record of
P, PP, S, and Surface Waves

Fig. 19.4

Changes
in P-and Swave
Velocity
Reveal
Earths
Internal
Layers

Fig. 19.5

Structure of the Earth

Study of the behavior of seismic waves tells
us about the shape and composition of the
interior of the Earth:
Crust:
Crust ~1070 km, intermediate
composition
Mantle:
Mantle ~2800 km, mafic composition
Outer core:
core ~2200 km, liquid iron
Inner core:
core ~1500 km, solid iron

Composition of the Earth

Seismology tells us about the density
of rocks:
Continental crust:
crust ~2.8 g/cm3
Oceanic crust:
crust ~3.2 g/cm3
Asthenosphere:
Asthenosphere ~3.3 g/cm3

Isostasy
Buoyancy of low-density rock masses
floating on high-density rocks;
accounts for roots of mountain belts
First noted during a survey of India
Himalayas seemed to affect plumb
Two hypotheses: Pratt and Airy

The less dense crust floats on

the less buoyant, denser mantle

Mohorovicic
Discontinuity
(Moho)

Fig. 19.6

Crust as an Elastic Sheet

Continental ice loads the mantle

Ice causes isostatic subsidence

Melting of ice causes isostatic
uplift
Return to isostatic equilibrium

Structure
of the
Crust and
Upper
Mantle

Fig. 19.7

Earths internal heat

Original heat
Subsequent radioactive decay
Conduction
Convection

Upper Mantle Convection as a

Possible Mechanism for Plate
Tectonics

Fig. 19.8

Seismic Tomography Scan of a

Section of the Mantle

Subducted slab

Fig. 19.9

Temperature vs. Depth

Fig. 19.10

Paleomagnetism
Use of the Earth's magnetic field to
investigate past plate motions
Permanent record of the direction of
the Earths magnetic field at the
time the rock was formed
May not be the same as the present
magnetic field

Magnetic
Field of
the Earth

Fig. 19.11

Magnetic
Field of a
Bar
Magnet

Fig. 19.11

Use of magnetism in geology

Elements that have unpaired
electrons (e.g., Fe, Mn, Cr, Co) are
effected by a magnetic field. If a
mineral containing these minerals cools
below its Currie temperature in the
presence of a magnetic field, the
minerals align in the direction of the
north pole (also true for sediments).

Earth's magnetic field

The Earth behaves as a magnet whose
poles are nearly coincident with the spin
axis (i.e., the geographic poles).
Magnetic lines of force emanate from the
magnetic poles such that a freely
suspended magnet is inclined upward in
the southern hemisphere, horizontal at the
equator, and downward in the northern
hemisphere

Evidence of a Possible Reversal

of the Earths Magnetic field

Fig. 19.12

Earth's magnetic field

declination: horizontal angle between
magnetic N and true N
inclination: angle made with horizontal

Earth's magnetic field

It was first thought that the Earth's
magnetic field was caused by a large,
permanently magnetized material deep in
the Earth's interior.
In 1900, Pierre Currie recognized that
permanent magnetism is lost from
magnetizable materials at temperatures
from 500 to 700 C (Currie point).

The Earth's magnetic field

Since the geothermal gradient in the
Earth is 25C/km, nothing can be
permanently magnetized below about 30
km.
Another explanation is needed.

Magnetic
Field of the
Earth

Fig. 19.11

Self-exciting dynamo
A dynamo produces electric current
by moving a conductor in a magnetic
field and vise versa. (i.e., an electric
current in a conductor produces a
magnetic field.

Self-exciting dynamo
It is believed that the outer core is in
convective motion (because it is liquid and
in a temperature gradient).
A "stray" magnetic field (probably from the
Sun) interacts with the moving iron in the
core to produce an electric current that is
moving about the Earth's spin axis yielding
a magnetic fielda self-exciting dynamo!

Self-exciting dynamo
The theory has this going for it:
It is plausible.
It predicts that the magnetic and
geographic poles should be nearly
coincident.
The polarity is arbitrary.
The magnetic poles move slowly.

Self-exciting dynamo
If the details seem vague, it is
because we have a poor
understanding of core dynamics.

Magnetic reversals
The polarity of the Earth's magnetic
field has changed thousands of times
in the Phanerozoic (the last reversal
was about 700,000 years ago).
These reversals appear to be abrupt
(probably last 1000 years or so).

Magnetic reversals
A period of time in which magnetism is
dominantly of one polarity is called a
magnetic epoch.
We call north polarity normal and south
polarity reversed.

Magnetic reversals
Discovered by looking at magnetic
signature of the seafloor as well as
young (0-2 Ma) lavas in France,
Iceland, Oregon and Japan.
When first reported, these data were
viewed with great skepticism

Self-reversal theory
First suggested that it was the rocks
that had changed, not the magnetic
field
By dating the age of the rocks (usually
by KAr) it has been shown that all
rocks of a particular age have the same
magnetic signature.

Recording the Magnetic Field in

Newly Deposited Sediment

Fig. 19.13

Lavas Recording Reversals in

Earths Magnetic Field

Fig. 19.14

Magnetic reversals
We can now use the magnetic
properties of a sequence of rocks to
determine their age.

The Geomagnetic
Time Scale
Based on determining
the magnetic
characteristics of rocks
of known age (from both
the oceans and the
continents).

We have a good record

of geomagnetic
reversals back to about
60 Ma.