Ship Resistance 2: Viscous

Resistance

Friction Resistance and Shear Stress

Shear stresses in a fluid arise from the relative motions between the
layers of fluid. Newton made the hypothesis that the shear
stress in a fluid is linearly depending with respect to the
If we consider the fluid
time rate of shear strain.
originally occupying the
small rectangular volume
indicated, then the shear

strain at some later point in

time is defined as:

The rate of change of shear strain of the cell is thus:

In the limit as the size of the cell reduces to zero, the shear strain
becomes
and hence in the case shown:

Friction Resistance and Shear Stress

Fluids which behave like this are called Newtonian fluids. Most fluids in
engineering applications are Newtonian, including water, air, oil etc.
Fluids which do not behave like this are called non-Newtonian fluids;
they are relatively rare; blood is one example.
A funny example of a non-Newtonian fluid is Oobleck, a mixture of
cornstarch and water. Oobleck is a non-Newtonian fluid. When some
force is applied it reacts like a solid for a short moment before it returns
to its liquid behaviour.
www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Science-Stories/Strange-Liquids/Sci-Media/Video/Oobleck
The friction resistance on a small area of the ship is simply the shear stress at the interface between the hull
and the water multiplied by the area.
Hence the velocity gradient at the surface of the ship is a key factor in determining the frictional resistance

non-Newtonian fluids
A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid
whose flow properties differ in any
way from those of Newtonian fluids
viscosity (the measure of a
fluid's ability to resist gradual
deformation by shear or tensile
stresses) of non-Newtonian
fluids is dependent on shear rate
or shear rate history
in a non-Newtonian fluid, the
relation between the shear
stress and the shear rate is
different and can even be timedependent a constant
coefficient of viscosity cannot be
defined.

If we test a scale model, how does resistance

vary
withofscale
? resistance of a ship is to test a scale
One means
estimating
model but what conditions do we need to apply to the model scale
tests?
We ideally need three key conditions to be satisfied
Geometrical Similarity
Kinematic Similarity
Dynamic Similarity
Geometric similarity means that the model is geometrically
similar to the full-size ship. This is (relatively) straightforward
when we consider the model at a macro-scale (e.g., scaling
principal dimensions), but essentially impossible if we consider the
micro-scale (e.g., details of skin roughness). Hence at model scale
a defined surface roughness is typically used, and corrections
applied later to compensate for realistic finish. The intermediate
scale (e.g., curvature similarity) is doable but requires nonstraightforward effort.
Kinematic similarity means that ratios of velocities must be

Dynamic Similarity
Dynamic Similarity means that the ratio of the key force
(gravitational, viscous) of interest to the inertial force
remains constant at different scales, so that the force of interest
results in the correct acceleration.
We can consider how properties scale by examining the scale ratios
For example the length scale ratio L = Ls/Lm where S = ship and M =
model
If we choose a length scale L , a velocity scale V , and a density
scale , then other scales are fixed by these choices. More
specifically:
Time thought of as length/velocity scales as L / V.
Acceleration thought of as velocity/time scales as V2 / L
Mass scales thought of as volume x density or [characteristic
length]3 x density

scales as L3 x

Inertia force = mass x acceleration = volume x density x

Dynamic Similarity for viscous flow with no

free surface

If we assume an incompressible Newtonian fluid with no free

surface, then the viscous force can be written as

Here S is the wetted surface, is the dynamic viscosity, and

is the velocity gradient
Hence the viscous forces scales as x V / L x L2
or

x V x L

The inertial force scales as:

x L2 x V2

Hence for dynamic similarity we want the viscous force

to scale in the same manner as the inertial force:
x V x L = x L2 x V2
or

= x L x V

Dynamic Similarity for viscous fluids with no free surface

(cont)
If
= x L x V
then
where S refers to the ship and M to the model.
hence
or
Where the kinematic viscosity is
(this is what we normally mean by viscosity)
Hence for Dynamic similarity
must remain constant.

(Reynolds Number)

Dimensional Analysis : the -theorem

in Engineering, Appl. Maths and physics, the Buckingham theorem is a key theorem for non-dimensionalisation
the theorem, due to E. Buckingham (1914), puts the method of
dimensions first proposed by Lord Rayleigh in his book The Theory of
Sound (1877) on a solid theoretical basis, and is based on ideas of
matrix algebra and concept of the rank of rectangular matrices.
the result has also appeared earlier in independent publications by A.
Vaschy (1892) and D. Riabouchinsky (1911).
-theorem states that if there is a physically meaningful
equation
involving n independent physical variables and
k independent physical units
then the original expression is equivalent to an equation
involving a set of
p = n k dimensionless parameters constructed from the
original variables

Dimensional Analysis: the -theorem

-theorem provides a method for computing sets of dimensionless
parameters from the given variables, even if the form of the equation is
still unknown
the choice of dimensionless parameters is not unique: Buckingham's
theorem only provides a way of generating sets of dimensionless
parameters, and will not choose the most physically meaningful
Example: consider a sphere moving with constant velocity U through a
viscous fluid of unbounded extent. If the sphere is smooth, the only
length scale of the problem is the sphere its diameter d. The drag force
D must be a unique function of
the diameter d,
the sphere velocity U,
the fluid density and the
the kinematic viscosity v, i.e.,

f(D,d,U,,)=0

(1)

Dimensional Analysis: the drag of a sphere

#independent physical variables:=n=5
[D]=ML/T^2
[d]=L
[U]=L/T
[]=M/L^3
[v]=L^2/T
physical units: L,M,T
# independent physical units:=k=3
and thus, according to the -theorem, equation (1) can be equivalently
expressed as
F(1,2)=0

(2)

where 1 and 2 are two non-dimensional quantities expressed as products of powers of the physical
variables. A possible choice is:
1= D/U^2d^2,

2=Ud/

Academic Year 2014-15

summary of Week-2 Lecture: Monday October
6th, 2014
friction resistance and shear stress
Newtonian vs non-Newtonian fluids
model-testing feasibility: geometric, kinematic and
dynamic similarity
dynamic similarity in the case of incompressible
Newtonian fluid with no free surface
o Reynolds number remains the same in the full and
model scale
dimensional analysis: the -theorem
example: sphere moving with constant velocity U
through a viscous fluid of unbounded extent

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

In laminar flow the fluid moves in lamina or layers.
Fluid does not mix between the layers; layers slide
over each other.
In turbulent flow the mean velocity over a
considerable period of time may be uniform, but the
velocity of a given fluid particle has random 3D
fluctuations. In the presence of a velocity gradient,
these mix fluid between layers.
The photo
shows laminar
turbulent
transition in a
jet of ink
injected into
(clear) water

Turbulent flows
Necessary conditions for a flow to be turbulent (according to: H.
Tennekes and J. L. Lumley, A First Course in Turbulence, MIT Press,
1972)

irregularity or randomness
diffusivity
large Reynolds numbers
3D vorticity fluctuations
dissipative
continuum

turbulent flows are FLOWS!

Turbulent flows (contd 1)

irregularity or randomness: this makes a deterministic approach
to turbulence problems impossible; instead, one relies on statistical
methods.
diffusivity: rapid mixing and increased rates of momentum, heat
and mass transfer. If a flow pattern looks random but does not
exhibit spreading of velocity fluctuations through the surrounding
fluid, it is surely not turbulent.
the contrails of a jet aircraft: excluding the turbulent region
just behind the aircraft, the contrails have a very nearly constant
diameter for several miles. Such a flow is not turbulent, even
though it was turbulent when it was generated.
diffusivity prevents boundary-layer separation on airfoils at large
(but not too large) angles of attack, it increases heat transfer
rates in machinery of all kinds, it is the source of the resistance
of flow in pipelines, and it increases momentum transfer
between winds and ocean currents.

Turbulent flows (contd - 2)

large Reynolds numbers:
turbulence often originates as an
instability of laminar flows if the Reynolds number becomes too
large. The instabilities are related to the interaction of viscous terms
and nonlinear inertia terms in the equations of motion.
3D vorticity fluctuations: Turbulence is rotational and 3D,
characterized by high levels of fluctuating vorticity. For this reason,
vorticity dynamics plays an essential role in the description of
turbulent flows. The random vorticity fluctuations that characterize
turbulence could not maintain themselves if the velocity fluctuations
were 2D, since an important vorticity-maintenance mechanism
known as vortex stretching is absent in 2D flow. E.g.,
cyclones in the atmosphere which determine the weather,
are not turbulence themselves, even though their characteristics
may be influenced strongly by small-scale turbulence (generated
somewhere by shear or buoyancy), which interacts with the
large-scale flow.
random waves on the surface of oceans are not in turbulent

Turbulent flows (contd - 3)

dissipative: turbulent flows are always dissipative. Viscous shear
stresses perform deformation work which increases the internal
energy of the fluid at the expense of kinetic energy of the
turbulence. Turbulence needs a continuous supply of energy
to make up for these viscous losses. If no energy is supplied,
turbulence decays rapidly.
Random motions, such as gravity waves in planetary
atmospheres and random sound waves (acoustic noise),
have insignificant viscous losses and, therefore, are not
turbulent. In other words, the major distinction between
random waves and turbulence is that waves are essentially
nondissipative (though they often are dispersive), while
turbulence is essentially dissipative.
continuum: turbulence is a continuum phenomenon, governed by
the equations of fluid mechanics. Even the smallest scales
occurring in a turbulent flow are ordinarily far larger than
any molecular length scale.

Turbulent flows (contd - 4)

turbulent flows are flows: Turbulence is not a feature of fluids but
of fluid flows. Most of the dynamics of turbulence is the same in all
fluids, whether they are liquids or gases, if the Reynolds number of
the turbulence is large enough.
since the equations of motion are nonlinear, each individual flow
pattern has certain unique characteristics that are associated
with its initial and boundary conditions.
no general (strong) solution to the 3D Navier-Stokes equations is
yet known; consequently, no general solutions to problems in
turbulent flow are available.
Since every flow is different, it follows that every turbulent flow
is different,
even though all turbulent flows have many
characteristics in common.

Laminar and Turbulent Flow

The transition between laminar and turbulent
flow typically occurs when the Reynolds
Number is between 105 and 106 .
Once the Reynolds Number is high enough,
perturbations (caused by vibration, noise
etc.) start to grow, generating tiny waves
(Tollmein-Schlichting waves), which grow
and form turbulent eddies. These waves,
originally discovered by Ludwig Prandtl,
were further studied by two of his former
students, Walter Tollmien and Hermann
Turbulent
Transitional flowfor
along whom
a sheet without
Schlichting
the phenomenon
is flow along a sheet without longitudinal
pressure gradient. (Visualization with liquid dye
longitudinal pressure
named.
tracers).
gradient

Boundary Layers

0.013
Laminar Flow

The boundary layer is the region of fluid

close to a solid body in which the
transverse velocity gradients are large
compared to the longitudinal gradients,
and shear stresses are significant.
Fluid velocity at the body surface is zero
(the no-slip condition), and increases
from zero to the maximum value, which
corresponds to the velocity which would
occur in the inviscid fluid flow.
The boundary layer thickness is typically
defined as the distance to the point at
which the speed reaches 99% of the
inviscid flow value.
Laminar-boundary layer thickness can be
estimated as
while turbulent boundary-layer thickness

0.010
0.008
BL Thickness (m)
0.005
0.003
0.000
0
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.5
Distance from leading edge (m)

0.6

1.80
Turbulent
1.35
0.90
BL Thickness (m)
0.45
0.00
0
75
150
225
300
Distance from leading edge (m)

Boundary Layers
One assumption for the velocity in the laminar boundary layer:
And for the turbulent boundary layer:
With n typically around 1/7 for Rn up to about 108
The local skin friction resistance
coefficient is related to the shear
stress at the wall and thus the
velocity gradient.

0.75

Hence it can be seen that the

laminar skin friction coefficient will
be much lower that the turbulent
value.

0.5
y/delta

0.25

0
0

0.25

0.5
u/Umax

0.75

Hence if laminar flow can be

maintained for longer, the
resistance will be lower.
Normally transition occurs at local

Academic Year 2014-15

summary of Week-2 Lecture: Friday October
10th, 2014
laminar versus turbulent flow
turbulence: 6 necessary conditions:
randomness, diffusivity, large Re, 3D
vorticity fluctuations, dissipative, nonmicroscale
transition between laminar and turbulent flow:
Tollmein-Schlichting waves
boundary-layer thickness /x=f(Re): f(Re)=5.58
Re^(-1/5), f(Re)=5.58 Re^(-1/5),
velocity within the boundary layer: u/Umax=h(y/):
h(q)=2q-q^2, h(q)=q^n

Laminar Sub-Layers
Even in fully turbulent flow there remains a very thin layer next to
the wall surface, known as the laminar (or viscous) sub-layer.
The region between the laminar sub-layer and the turbulent layer is
known as the buffer zone.

Laminar Sub-Layers
in the literature 2 complementary expressions are proposed for the
velocity in the turbulent boundary layer:
the inner approximation u/u=f1(uy/) is valid in the viscous sub-layer,

where u is the so-called friction velocity u=[xy(x,0)/]

the outer approximation (U-u)/u=f2(y/) is valid in the main portion of the boundary layer,
where the Reynolds stresses ij are dominant
if ui denotes the fluctuating part of the velocity component ui, then ij=E[uiuj], where E[]
denotes the mean or average value of
it is now a simple matter to show that the functions f1 and f2 must be logarithmic in the
overlap region, f1=A log(uy/)+C1, f2=-A log(y/)+C2, a result due to Prandtl and von
Krmn
a simpler velocity distribution, but one that has less empirical support and scientific motivation
than the logarithmic profile, is the 1/7-power relation u/u=8.7(uy/)^(1/7)

Skin Friction Coefficient

It is possible to use an assumed velocity distribution to calculate the
local skin friction coefficient, and then integrate along the length to
find the mean skin friction coefficient.
Whilst formulae derived using this kind of approach have been
adopted, the coefficients have often been adjusted to match
experiment data.
Two well-known and widely-used
0.009
examples of skin friction semiSchoenherr
empirical formulae are
0.0068
Schoenherr friction line
Cf

0.0045

and ITTC 1957 correlation

line

0.0023

0
1.00E+05

1.00E+06

1.00E+07
Rn

1.00E+08

1.00E+09

These give quite different results

at low Rn

Roughness and Correlation Allowance

The friction or correlation lines are usually written to predict the
friction coefficient of a smooth surface. In practice real ship hulls are
not smooth due to factors such as:
structural roughness (e.g. plate waviness, welds etc.)
local damage
corrosion (e.g. pitting)
corrosion products (e.g., rust)
paint failures poorly applied paint, stripped off paint, blistered
paint
marine fouling
(or any of the above after they have been painted over)
Roughness is measured with a profilometer. (see
http://www.hull-roughness.com)
If the roughness is small enough to stay within the laminar sub-layer
it has little or no effect on resistance .
Typical mean roughness height for a new ship is around 100 microns
for an old ship it can be as much as 1000 microns

Roughness and Correlation Allowance

Roughness and Correlation Allowance

The Correlation Allowance is determined from comparison of model and
full-scale trial results.
When using the formula for roughness allowance given on previous
slide, The 19th ITTC recommend the formula:

With these formula, the combination of roughness and correlation

allowance give results which are similar to those in the previous
recommended value for Correlation Allowance alone.

Sample Calculation of Roughness Allowance

The Roughness allowance is calculated here for a 300m ship travelling
at 16 knots.
The Reynolds Number is 2.08E9.
The first graph shows the absolute value of the change in friction
coefficient; The second graph shows the same data expressed as a
percentage increase on the standard smooth value based on the ITTC
1957 correlation line.