BASIC

METEOROLOGICAL
PROCESSES

Objectives

What is atmospheric thermodynamics?

What are the variables of atmospheric
thermodynamics?
What is lapse rate?
Explain the potential temperature.
What is atmospheric stability and the various methods
that define atmospheric stability?
What is boundary layer development?
What are the effects of meteorology on plume
dispersion?
What is wind velocity profile?
What is wind rose diagram and what are the uses of it?
Determination of mixing height.

AIR POLLUTION
METEOROLOGY

Atmospheric thermodynamics

Atmospheric stability

Boundary layer development

Effect of meteorology on plume dispersion

ATMOSPHERE

Pollution cloud is interpreted by the chemical

composition and physical characteristics of the
atmosphere
Concentration of gases in the atmosphere
varies from trace levels to very high levels
Nitrogen and oxygen are the main constituents.
Some constituents such as water vapor vary in
space and time.
Four major layers of earths atmosphere are:

Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere

ATMOSPHERIC
THERMODYNAMICS

A parcel of air is defined using the state variables

Three important state variables are density, pressure
and temperature
The units and dimensions for the state variables are

Density
(mass/volume)

gm/cm3

ML-3

Pressure (Force/Area)

N/m2 ( Pa )

ML-1T-2

Temperature

F, o R, o C, o K

Humidity is the fourth important variable that

gives the amount of water vapor present in a

EQUATION OF STATE

Relationship between the three state

variables may be written as:
f

( P, ,T) = 0

For a perfect gas:

P

= .R .T
R is Specific gas constant

R for dry air = 0.287 Joules / gm /oK

R for water vapor = 0.461 Joules / gm /oK
R for wet air is not constant and depend on mixing
ratio

Exercise

Calculate the density of a gas with a molecular weight of 29 @ 1

atm (absolute) and 80 oF. Gas constant, R = 0.7302 ft3atm/lbmoleoR.

Solution
Absolute Temperature = 80 oF + 460 = 540 oR
Density = P ( molecular weight) / RT
Density = ( 1atm. )*(29 lb/lb mole) / ( 0.7302 ft3atm/lb-moleoR)*(540 oR)

Density = 0.073546 lb/ ft3.

Exercise

Determine the pressure, both absolute and gauge, exerted at the

bottom of the column of liquid 1 meter high, with density of 1000
kg / m3.

Solution

Step 1 :

Pgauge = (density of liquid) * ( acceleration due to gravity)

*(height of liquid column)

Step 2 :
Pabsolute = Pgauge + Patmospheric
Pabsolute = 111.11 kPa

LAWS OF
THERMODYNAMICS

First Law of Thermodynamics:

This law is based on law of conservation of total

energy.
Heat added per unit mass = (Change in internal energy
per unit mass)

+ (Work done

by a unit mass)

H = U+W

Second Law of Thermodynamics:

This law can be stated as "no cyclic process exists

having the transference of heat from a colder to
hotter body as its sole effect"

SPECIFIC HEAT

Defined as the amount of heat needed to change the

temperature of unit mass by 1oK.
Specific heat at constant volume

Cv = lim
T0

Q
T

= const

Specific heat at constant pressure

Cp = lim
T0

Q
T

p = const

Relationship between Cv and Cp is given by Carnots law:

For perfect gas, Cp Cv = R

For dry air Cp = (7/2)*R (Perfect diatomic gas)
Cv = (5/2)*R (Perfect diatomic gas)
Ratio of Cp and Cv for dry air is 1.4

Cpd = 1.003 joules/gm/o K ; Cvd = 0.717 joules/gm/o K

PROCESSES IN THE
ATMOSPHERE

An air parcel follows several different paths

when it moves from one point to another point
in the atmosphere. These are:

Isobaric change

constant pressure

Isosteric change

constant volume

Isothermal change constant temperature

Isentropic change constant entropy (E)

Adiabatic Process

Q = 0 (no heat is added or

removed )

The adiabatic law

Q is P. = constant

E = T

STATICS OF THE
ATMOSPHERE

Vertical variation of the parameters = ?

Hydrostatic Equation:
Pressure variation in a "motionless" atmosphere
p
1 p
.g
or

g
z
z

Pressure variation in an atmosphere:

1 p d 2 z
g
2
z dt

Relationship between pressure and elevation

1 p g
using gas law:

p z

Rd T

STATICS OF THE
ATMOSPHERE

Integration of the above equation gives

g
p

ln

po
Rd

T
0

. dz

Using the initial condition Z=0, P = P 0

The above equation indicates that the
variation of pressure depends on vertical
profile of temperature.
For iso-thermal atmosphere
g

p
po
Therefore,

exp

Rd

To1 . z

pressure decreases exponentially

with height at a ratio of 12.24 mb per 100m.

Lapse Rate:

Lapse rate is the rate of change of

temperature with height
Lapse rate is defined as = -T
z
Value of varies throughout the
atmosphere

Potential Temperature:

Concept of potential temperature is useful in comparing

two air parcels at same temperatures and different
pressures.

CONCEPT OF POTENTIAL
TEMPERATURE

ATMOSPHERE STABILITY

The ability of the atmosphere to enhance or to

resist atmospheric motions

Influences the vertical movement of air.

If the air parcels tend to sink back to their initial

level after the lifting exerted on them stops, the
atmosphere is stable.

If the air parcels tend to rise vertically on their

own, even when the lifting exerted on them
stops, the atmosphere is unstable.

If the air parcels tend to remain where they are

after lifting stops, the atmosphere is neutral.

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

The stability depends on the ratio of

suppression to generation of turbulence

The stability at any given time will depend

upon static stability ( related to change in
temperature with height ), thermal
turbulence ( caused by solar heating ), and
mechanical turbulence (a function of wind
speed and surface roughness).

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY

Atmospheric stability can be determined

using adiabatic lapse rate.
> d

Unstable

= d

Neutral

< d

Stable

is environmental lapse rate

d is dry adiabatic lapse rate (10c/100m) and dT/dZ = -10c /100 m

ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
CLASSIFICATION

Schemes to define atmospheric stability are:

P- G Method
P-G / NWS Method
The STAR Method
BNL Scheme
Sigma Phi Method
Sigma Omega Method
Modified Sigma Theta Method
NRC Temperature Difference Method
Wind Speed ratio (UR) Method
Radiation Index Method
AERMOD Method (Stable and Convective cases)

PASQUILL-GIFFORD
STABILITY CATEGORIES
Nighttime cloud

Daytime Insolation

cover

Surface Wind
Strong

Moderate

Slight

Thinly
overcast or 4/8
low cloud

<2

A-B

2-3

A-B

3-5

B-C

5-6

C-D

>6

Speed (m/s)

3/8

Source: Met Monitoring Guide Table 6.3

SIGMA THETA STABILITY

CLASSIFICATION
CATEGORY

PASQUILL CLASS

SIGMA THETA (ST)

EXTREME UNSTABLE

ST>=22.5

MODERATE UNSTABLE

22.5>ST>=17.5

SLIGHTLY UNSTABLE

17.5>ST>=12.5

NEUTRAL

12.5>ST>=7.5

SLIGHTLY STABLE

7.5>ST>= 3.8

MODERATE STABLE

3.8>ST>=2.1

EXTREMELY STABLE

2.1>ST

Source: Atmospheric Stability Methods & Measurements (NUMUG - Oct 2003)

TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE
(T)

Source: Regulatory guide; office of nuclear regulatory research- Table 1

TURBULENCE

Fluctuations in wind flow which have a

frequency of more than 2 cycles/ hr

Types of Turbulence

Mechanical Turbulence
Convective Turbulence
Clear Air Turbulence
Wake Turbulence

LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA TOLEDO

WEATHER CONDITIONS
OF TOLEDO

Weather Station

Home, Professional, and Live

Weather Balloon

Pressure, Temperature, Wind Speed, Wind

Direction, & Humidity

Use of Towers

Velocity, Temperature, & Turbulence

LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA TOLEDO

Snowfall

Temperature

Annual

38.3

Annual

49.6F

Decembe
r

9.1

January

25.7F

January

9.8

July

73.2F

February

8.0

March

6.3

Precipitation
Annual

31.62

January

2.18

June

3.45

Greatest snowfall 73.1 (1997-1998)

Least snowfall 6.0 (1889-1890)
Average number of days with a tenth of an
inch or more snowfall 27 days

National Weather Map

US Forecast

National Air Quality

Ozone

Climate

Temperature

NATIONAL WEATHER MAP

H High Pressure
Area
L Low Pressure
Area

A high pressure area forecasts clear skies.

A low pressure area forecasts cloudiness and
precipitation

BOUNDARY LAYER
DEVELOPMENT

BOUNDARY LAYER
DEVELOPMENT

Thermal boundary Layer (TBL) development

depends on two factors:

Convectively produced turbulence

Mechanically produced turbulence

Development of TBL can be predicted by two

distinct approaches:

Theoretical approach
Experimental studies

BOUNDARY LAYER
DEVELOPMENT

Theoretical approach may be classified into

three groups:

Empirical formulae
Analytical solutions
Numerical models

One layer models

Higher order closure models

TBL USING ANALYTICAL

SOLUTION

Time

Time

Time

Time

EFFECTS OF METEOROLOGY
ON PLUME DISPERSION

EFFECTS OF METEOROLOGY
ON PLUME DISPERSION

Dispersion of emission into atmosphere

depends on various meteorological factors.
Height of thermal boundary layer is one of
the important factors responsible for high
ground level concentrations
At 9 AM pollutants are pulled to the ground
by convective eddies
Spread of plume is restricted in vertical due
to thermal boundary height at this time

WIND VELOCITY

A power law profile is used to describe the

variation of wind speed with height in the
surface boundary layer
U = U1 (Z/Z1)p
Where,
U1 is the velocity at Z1 (usually 10 m)
U is the velocity at height Z.

Stability
Rural
p following
Urban ptable.
The values
of Class
p are given
in the
Very Unstable

0.07

0.15

Neutral

0.15

0.25

Very Stable

0.55

0.30

BEAUFORT SCALE

This scale is helpful in getting an idea on the

magnitude of wind speed from real life
observations

Atmospheric
condition
Calm

Wind speed
< 1mph

Comments
Smoke rises vertically

Light breeze

5 mph

Wind felt on face

Gentle breeze

10 mph

Leaves in constant motion

Strong

25 mph

Large branches in motion

Violent storm

60 mph

Wide spread damage

WIND ROSE DIAGRAM

(WRD)

Wind Direction (%)

Wind Speed (mph)

WIND ROSE DIAGRAM

(WRD)

WRD provides the graphical summary of

the frequency distribution of wind direction
and wind speed over a period of time
Steps to develop a wind rose diagram from hourly
observations are:

Analysis for wind direction

Determination of frequency of wind in a given
wind direction
Analysis for mean wind speed
Preparation of polar diagram

Calculations for Wind Rose

% Frequency =
Number of observations * 100/Total Number of
Observations
Direction: N, NNE, ------------------------,NNW, Calm
Wind speed: Calm, 1-3, 4-6, 7-10, -----------

DETERMINATION OF
MAXIMUM MIXING HEIGHT

Steps to determine the maximum mixing height for

a day are:

Plot the temperature profile, if needed

Plot the maximum surface temperature for the
day on the graph for morning temperature
profile
Draw dry adiabatic line from a point of
maximum surface temperature to a point where
it intersects the morning temperature profile
Read the corresponding height above ground at
the point of intersection obtained. This is the
maximum mixing height for the day

DETERMINATION OF
MAXIMUM MIXING HEIGHT

POWER PLANT PLUMES IN

MICHIGAN
Monroe Power
Plant

POWER PLANT PLUMES IN

MICHIGAN
Trenton Channel

POWER PLANT PLUMES IN

MICHIGAN
Belle River Power
Plant

River Rouge Power

Plant

Photo credit: Kimberly M. Coburn

PROBLEMS

During an air pollution experiment the lapse

rate was a constant at 1.1 C per 100 m. If the
atmosphere is assumed to behave as a perfect
gas and the sea level temperature and
pressure were 16 C and 1 atm, at what
altitude was the pressure one-third the sea
level?

SOLUTION

Step1:

Step 2:

Calculate Temperature

Step 3:
Substitute for temperature

Step 4:

Integrate between P = 1 and P = 0.333, and between z = 0, and z = z.

Z = 7817.13m

REFERENCES

Met Monitoring Guide:

http://www.webmet.com/met_monitoring/toc.html
Regulatory Guide office of nuclear regulatory research:

http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/reg-guides/power-react
ors/active/01-023/01-023r1.pdf
NOAA-National Climate Data Center