Solutions

and
Colligative Properties
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of
two or more substances in a single phase.
Solute substance being dissolved
Solvent dissolving medium

TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Solute

Solvent

Example

Gas
Gas
Liquid

Gas
Liquid
Liquid

Oxygen in nitrogen
CO2 in H2O (carbonated beverages)
Alcohol in water, ethylene glycol in
water (antifreeze), acetic acid in
water (vinegar)

Liquid

Solid

Hg in Ag and Sn (dental amalgam)

Solid
Solid

Liquid
Solid

Sugar in water, ocean water (salt in water)

Copper in nickel (Monel alloy)

Page 402 in your text

Heterogeneous mixtures are

suspensions and colloids.
Brownian motion is the erratic
movement of colloid particles. The
Tyndall effect (named after John
Tyndall) is when light is scattered by
colloidal particles dispersed in a
transparent medium. For example: car
headlights in fog.
http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2002/p
davies/Tyndall.jpg

RISON OF SOLUTIONS, COLLOIDS AND SUSPEN

Solutions
Homogeneous
Particle size:
0.01- 1 nm; can
be atoms, ions,
molecules
Do not separate
on standing
Cannot be
separated by
filtration
Do not scatter
light

Colloids
Suspensions
Heterogeneous
Heterogeneous
Particle size: 1- Particle size: over
1000 nm,
1000 nm,
dispersed; can be suspended; can
aggregates of
be large particles
large molecules
or aggregates
Do not separate
Particles settle
on standing
out if not
constantly stirred
Cannot be
Can be separated
separated by
by filtration
filtration
Scatter light
May scatter light,
(Tyndall effect) Pagebut
areinnot
404
your
transparent

CLASSES OF COLLOIDS
Class of
colloid
Sol
Gel
Liquid
emulsion
Foam
Solid aerosol

Phases

Example

Solid dispersed in
liquid
Solid network
extending
throughout liquid
Liquid dispersed in
liquid
Gas dispersed in
liquid
Solid dispersed in
gas

Paints, mud
Gelatin

Milk,
mayonnaise
Shaving cream,
whipped cream
Smoke, airborne
particulate
matter, auto
exhaust
Page 404
in your

Solutes are
classified
according to the
extent they
dissociate
into ions in aqueous
solutions.
Strong electrolyte:
substance that
dissolves in water to
give a solution that
conducts electricity.
(i.e. salt NaCl)

Weak electrolyte:
less than 50% of
dissolved solute exists
as ions.
(i.e. acetic
acid[vinegar])

 Nonelectrolyte: < 0.01% exists as

ions; does not conduct electricity
when solute is dissolved in water.
(i.e. sugar C12H22O11)

The Solution Process

Factors that affect the rate
of dissolution
increasing the surface
area of the solute
stirring
heating the solvent

 Solubility is the maximum quantity

of solute that can be dissolved in a
given quantity of solvent at a
particular temperature. It is usually
expressed in g of solute per 100 g
of solvent at a given temperature.
The three interactions that
determine the solubility are solutesolute, solute-solvent, and
solvent-solvent interactions.

Temperature effects
on solubility

http://galileo.phys.virginia.edu
/education/outreach/8thgrades
ol/images/solubility.jpg

 Solution equilibrium is the physical state in

which the opposing processes of dissolution and
crystallization of a solute occur at equal rates.
Saturated solution: a solution that contains the
maximum amount of dissolved solute.
Unsaturated solution: a solution that contains
less than a saturated solution under the current
conditions.
Supersaturated solution: a solution that
contains more dissolved solute than a saturated
solution contains under the same conditions.

 Nature of solute and solvent (polarity, etc.)

Solute-solvent interactions - like
dissolves like
Temperature (for gases an increase in T
decreases solubility). For the majority of
solids in liquids, increasing T increases
their solubility. The degree of solubility can
differ greatly and in some cases, even
decrease a solids solubility.
pressure (for solids and liquids has no
effect; for gases an increase in P increases
solubility)
gas + solvent solution

Henrys
Law
the solubility of a gas in a liquid is
Directly proportional to the partial
pressure of that gas on the surface of
the liquid.
S1 = S 2
P 1 P2
In carbonated beverages forcing it into solution at
pressure of 5-10 atm increases CO 2 solubility. The
containers are then sealed. When opened, the CO 2
gas escapes as the pressure returns to 1 atm. The
rapid escape of a gas from a liquid in which it is
dissolved is called effervescence.

 The net amount of heat energy

absorbed or released when a specific
amount of solute dissolves in a
solvent is the heat of solution.

http://www.4college.co.uk/a/O/solution.gif

http://img.sparknotes.com/figures/0/07cf18f888c9c21f4b45687743b63ac3/solnform.gif

When two liquids dissolve in each

other at all proportions they are said to
be miscible (i.e. alcohol and water);
when they do not they are called
immiscible (i.e. water and oil). You
can separate immiscible liquids with a
piece of equipment called a
separatory funnel (shown at right

http://images.scran.ac.uk/RB/images/thumb/0934/093
43276.jpg

Fractional
Distillation
Apparatus

knowledgerush.com

Paper Chromatography ljcreate.com

Chromatogram
Development

(KB)

Draw a line to
indicate the height of
the solvent front
X the pigments to
find the center

B
C

Calculate the Rf = B/A

and C/A

Put a pencil mark to locate where

the pigment goes

analytical technique for

separating compounds based
primarily on their volatilities.
Compounds move through a GC
column as gases. The compounds
partition between a stationary
phase, which can be either solid or
liquid, and a mobile phase (gas).
The differential partitioning into
the stationary phase allows the
compounds to be separated in
time and space.
http://www.cee.vt.edu/ewr/environmental/teac

cee.vt.edu

 Solvation: process of surrounding

solute particles with solvent
particles. A solute particle that is
surrounded by solvent molecules is
said to be solvated.
Hydration: solution process in which
the solvent is water.

see picture at right:

http://robocup.mi.fuberlin.de/buch/chap6/ComparisonB
attery-Dateien/image002.jpg

 Dissociation is the separation of ions that

occurs when an ionic compound dissolves.
ex. NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Ionization is the process whereby ions are

formed from solute molecules by the action of
the solvent.
ex. HCl H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

In water solutions, the H+ ion normally exists

attached to the water molecules in solution to
form the hydronium ion (H3O+)
ex. HCl (g) + H2O (l) H3O+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Concentration of solutions: a measure of the

amount of solute in a given amount of
solvent or solution.

Mass percent =
mass of component in solution x 100
total mass of solution
ppm
mass of component in solution x 106
total mass of solution

Molarity
number of moles of solute in one liter
of solution. Note that the total
volume of the solution is 1 liter, not
that you add solute to 1 liter of
solvent. The symbol for molarity is
M and usually referred to as an X
molar solution.
Molarity (M) = moles of
solute
liters
of solution

 Molality = number of moles of

solute per kilogram of solvent.
The symbol for molality is m,
and is usually referred to as an
X molal solution.
molality (m) = moles of
solute
kg of solvent
moles of solute
1000g of solvent

RECIPITATION REACTION
Typically when two
aqueous solutions are
combined and one of the
products is minimally
soluble a PPT is formed

http://boomeria.org/chemlectures/textass2/tableA7.jpg

Table 1 in your textbook page 437;

Table A-12 (appendix) page 860

Na2CO3 (aq) + Ca(NO3)2 (aq)

CaCO3 (?) + 2NaNO3 (?)
Looking at your solubility table we
see that all nitrates are soluble and
most carbonates are insoluble,
except Na, K and NH4
Thus CaCO3 (s) + 2NaNO3 (aq)

Net ionic equations

Include only those compounds and
ions that undergo a chemical change
in a reaction in an aqueous solution.
Spectator ions are those that do
NOT take part in a chemical reaction
and are found in solution before and
after the reaction takes place

Ionic equation:
2Na+ (aq) + CO32- (aq) + Ca2+ (aq) +
2NO3- (aq) CaCO3 (s) + 2Na+ (aq)
+ 2NO3- (aq)
Net ionic equation:
Do not include spectator ions.

Ca2+ (aq) + CO32- (aq)

CaCO3 (s)

Colligative Properties
properties that depend on the concentration
of solute particles but not on their identity.
Vapor pressure lowering. Boiling point is
higher and freezing point of a solution is
lower than that of a pure solvent. This is
due to the presence of nonvolatile
solutes. These are substances that have
little tendency to become a gas under
existing conditions.

http://www.au
setute.com.au
/images/gravp
l.gif

 Freezing point depression, Tf, is the

difference between the freezing points of the
pure solvent and a solution of a non-electrolyte
in that solvent, and it is directly proportional to
the molal concentration of the solution.
Tf = Kf m

Kf = the molal freezing-point constant is

the freezing-point depression of the solvent in
a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile,
nonelectrolyte solute. The value for this
constant depends on the solvent used. (See a
reference table for specific values)

 Boiling point elevation, Tb, is the

difference between the boiling points of
pure solvent and a nonelectrolyte
solution of that solvent, and it is directly
proportional to the molal concentration
of the solution. Tb = Kb m
Kb = molal boiling-point constant is
the boiling-point elevation of the solvent
in a 1-molal solution of a nonvolatile,
nonelectrolyte solute. The value for this
constant depends on the solvent used.
(See a reference table for specific
values)

Electrolytes and colligative

properties
Keeping in mind that colligative
properties depend on the number of
solute particles, not their identity, we
must know the extent to which
electrolytes dissociate.
The higher the degree of
dissociation, the more moles of
ions we have in solution, thus
increasing the net effect.

Osmo
sis
the diffusion of solvent

http://www.studentsguide.i
n/biology/absorptionmovementimages/diagram-showingrelationship-of-osmoticpressure-turgor-pressurewall-pressure.jpg

particles (water) across

a semipermeable
membrane from an
area of higher solvent
concentration to an
area of lower solvent
concentration.
Osmotic pressure is
the external pressure
that must be applied to
stop osmosis.

IsaacsTEACH on Solutions, Colloids,

Suspensions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ti0Q
roYDta8
TheChemistrySolution's Video on Henry's Law
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eM56
JYel1aM
TheChemistrySolution's Video on Partial
Pressure of Gases and Mole Fractions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=agN
tq38TA6o