Operating System

Chapter 1: Introduction
Operating System Concepts 8th Edition,
Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009
Chapter 1: Introduction
What Operating Systems Do
Computer-System Organization
Computer-System Architecture
Operating-System Structure
Operating-System Operations
Process Management
Memory Management
Storage Management
Protection and Security
Operating System Concepts 8th Edition
1.2
Objectives
To provide a grand tour of the major operating systems components
To provide coverage of basic computer system organization
1.3
What Operating System Do

A program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer
and the computer hardware
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier
Make the computer system convenient to use
Use apps, device

Environment/ interface for user
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner
1.4
Four Components of a Computer System
1.5
Computer System Structure

Computer system can be divided into four components
Hardware provides basic computing resources
Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various

applications and users
Application programs define the ways in which the system

resources are used to solve the computing problems of the
users
CPU, memory, I/O devices
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database

systems, video games
Users
People, machines, other computers
OS provides the means of proper use of these resources- like a
government/management.
1.6
Computer System Structure

OS from two view points:
User view
According to the interface being used- monitor, keyboard, mouse
The usability affect performance using resources
User might share resources-efficient and fair
Embedded system- no user view.
System view
OS as resource allocator due to many resources required to solve

problems: cpu time, memory space, file storage space ,i/o device.
Os as manager for resources-system operate efficiently.
OS as control program- Controls execution of programs to prevent

errors and improper use of the computer
1.7
Computer System Organization

Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus

providing access to shared memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory

cycles
1.8
Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
Each device controller has a local buffer
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing
an interrupt
1.9
Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EPROM(Eraseable programmable),

generally known as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system and starts execution
1.10
Common Functions of Interrupts

The occurrence of event is signaled by interrupt and when cpu is interrupted,
it stops operation and transfer execution to a fixed location
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through
the interrupt vector, which contains the addresses of all the service
routines
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction

Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being processed
to prevent a lost interrupt
An operating system is interrupt driven
1.11
Interrupt Timeline
1.12
Storage Structure
CPU can load instructions only from memory, so any programs run must be
stored there.
Run in main memory-RAM/ DRAM.

ROM- to store static program.
All forms of memory provide an array of words with address- interaction
through the sequence of load and store.
Ideally to store everything in main memory but-small and volatile.

Main memory only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
Secondary storage extension of main memory that provides large
nonvolatile storage capacity
1.13
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
Speed
Cost
Volatility
size
Caching copying information into faster storage system; main memory
can be viewed as a last cache for secondary storage
1.14
Storage-Device Hierarchy
1.15
I/O Structure
A large portion of OS tasks dedicated to manage I/O due to varying nature of
devices.
Device controller assigned to specific devices.

Device controller maintain some local buffer storage and a set of special-
purpose register.
Os have device driver for each device controller.

When the I/O operation started:
1.
Device driver loads the appropriate registers within device controller.
2.
Device controller examines the contents of these registers to determine

what action to take and starts to transfer data to local buffer.
3.
Once completed, device controller will inform device driver via an interrupt
that it has finished.
4.
Then the device driver returns control to the OS, returning pointer of
data /update the info. Status.
For bulk data movement, Direct Memory Access (DMA) is used.
1.16
Direct Memory Access Structure

Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to
memory speeds
Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to main
memory without CPU intervention
Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per
byte
1.17
Computer-System Architecture
Two types:
Single-Processor Systems
Only one main CPU for executions.
Multiprocessor Systems
1.18
How a Modern Computer Works
1.19
Multiprocessor Systems
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include
1.
Increased throughput
2.
Economy of scale
o
3.
To get more work done in less time.

Cost is less than using multiple single processor system because
sharing peripherals, mass storage and power supply, use same set
of data.
Increased reliability graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types
1.
Asymmetric Multiprocessing
2.
Each processor assign to specific task, master slave
Symmetric Multiprocessing
- Each processor perform all tasks,peer to peer
1.20
Symmetric Multiprocessing Architecture
1.21
A Dual-Core Design
Multiple computing cores on a single chip, more efficient than

multiple chips in single core-communication faster, consume
less power
Well suited for server systems.
1.22
Clustered Systems
Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together
connected through LAN.
Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby modeMonitor the active server, if server fails it will become active server.
Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications,

monitoring each other
Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
Applications must be written to use parallelization- divide a program

into separate components that run in parallel on individual computers
in the cluster
1.23
Operating System Structure

Multiprogramming needed for os efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has

one to execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory-job pool.
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When some jobs have to e.g wait, OS switches to another job
1.24
Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
1.25
Operating System Structure

Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so
frequently that users can interact with each job while it is running, creating
interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user is given the impression that the entire system is dedicated for him/her
even though it is shared among users.
Each user has at least one program executing in memory process

If several jobs ready to run at the same time- system must choose them- make
decisions CPU scheduling
If processes dont fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memoryenable users to run programs that are larger than actual physical memory.
1.26
Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware, if no job at all, os will sit quietly.
Software error or request creates exception or trap
Division by zero, invalid memory access request for operating system

service
Interrupt service routine dealing with the interrupt.

Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each
other or the operating system
Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system
components
User mode and kernel mode(sv,sys,privileged)
Mode bit provided by hardware, 0 and 1
Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or

kernel code- task by user or os.
Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in

kernel mode-handle errant user.
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
1.27
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Trap/interrupt- hardware switches from user mode to kernel mode-system
call.
Perform interrupt mechanism.

With dual mode- if the user fails in some way such as making an attempt
illegal instructions, access memory then the hardware will trap- terminate
program abnormally.
Timer- Avoid user program to get stuck in an infinite loop/fail to call system
services. Timer can be set to interrupt.
1.28
Process Management
A process is a program in execution
Program is a passive entity, process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task:
CPU time, memory, I/O devices, files
Initialization data-input
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next

instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system running
concurrently on one or more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads
1.29
Process Management Activities

The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection
with process management:
Scheduling processes and threads on the CPU.
Creating and deleting both user and system processes.
Suspending and resuming processes.
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.
Providing mechanisms for process communication.
1.30
Memory Management
Main memory is a repository of quickly accessible data shared by the CPU
and I/O devices.
Processor reads instructions from main memory, and data from disk should
be transfer to main memory to be processed-with address.
Thus, to improve performance, several programs are stored in main memory
during execution and proper memory management is essential.
The tasks of OS in memory management:
Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by
whom
Deciding which processes and data to move into and out of memory
Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
1.31
Storage Management
OS provides logical and uniform info storage.
File-System management
Several diff types of media-each media has it own char with

properties: access speed, capacity, data transfer rate
Files usually organized into directories to make them easier to

use.
Access control on most systems to determine who can access

what- read,write, append
OS activities include
Creating and deleting files and directories
Manipulate files and directory
Mapping files onto secondary storage
Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
1.32
Mass-Storage Management
Main memory is small to accommodate data and program and volatile
Thus secondary storage is needed.
OS activities
Free-space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling
Secondary storage also should be efficient and managed by OS-
mounting and unmounting media in devices, migrate data
1.33
Caching
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is
there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there
Without cache, cpu have to wait several cycles for the instructions
to be fetch from main memory.
Caches have limited size, cache management is important
1.34
Performance of Various Levels of Storage
1.35
Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register

Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no
matter where it is stored in the storage hierarchy
Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware
such that all CPUs have the most recent value in their cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
Several copies of a datum can exist
Various solutions covered in Chapter 17
1.36
I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities-strange of hardware devices
from the user
I/O subsystem responsible for
Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data temporarily

while it is being transferred), caching (storing parts of data in faster
storage for performance), spooling (the overlapping of output of one job
with input of other jobs)
General device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices
1.37
Protection and Security

Protection any mechanism for controlling access of processes or
users to resources defined by the OS
Security defense of the system against internal and external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity

theft, theft of service
Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can
do what
User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and

associated number, one per user
User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to

determine access control
Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and

controls managed, then also associated with each process, file
Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID with

more rights
1.38
End of Chapter 1
Operating System Concepts 8th Edition,

Operating System

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Chapter 1: Introduction

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition,

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

What Operating System Do

and the computer hardware

Operating system goals:

Execute user programs and make solving user problems easier

Make the computer system convenient to use

Use apps, device

Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Four Components of a Computer System

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Computer System Structure

Hardware provides basic computing resources

Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various

Application programs define the ways in which the system

CPU, memory, I/O devices

Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database

People, machines, other computers

OS provides the means of proper use of these resources- like a

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Computer System Structure

According to the interface being used- monitor, keyboard, mouse

The usability affect performance using resources

User might share resources-efficient and fair

Embedded system- no user view.

OS as resource allocator due to many resources required to solve

Os as manager for resources-system operate efficiently.

OS as control program- Controls execution of programs to prevent

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Computer System Organization

One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus

Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Typically stored in ROM or EPROM(Eraseable programmable),

Initializes all aspects of system

Loads operating system and starts execution

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Common Functions of Interrupts

it stops operation and transfer execution to a fixed location

Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through

Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction

to prevent a lost interrupt

An operating system is interrupt driven

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition

Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne 2009

Run in main memory-RAM/ DRAM.

through the sequence of load and store.