EE462L, Spring 2014

Waveforms and Definitions

Instantaneous power p(t) flowing into the box

i (t )
+
v (t )

p (t ) v(t ) i (t )

Circuit in a box,
two wires

i (t )

ia (t )
+

p (t ) va (t ) ia (t ) vb (t ) ib (t )

va (t )

Any wire can be the

voltage reference

ib (t )
+

vb (t )

Circuit in a box,
three wires

ia (t ) ib (t )

Works for any circuit, as long as all N wires are accounted for. There must
2
be (N 1) voltage measurements, and (N 1) current measurements.

Average value of
periodic instantaneous power p(t)

1 t o T
Pavg
p (t )dt
T to

Two-wire sinusoidal case

v(t ) V sin(ot ),

i (t ) I sin(ot )

p(t ) v(t ) i (t ) V sin(ot ) I sin(ot )

zero average

cos( ) cos(2ot )
p (t ) VI

1 t o T
VI
V I
Pavg
p (t )dt cos( )
cos( )
T to
2
2 2

Pavg Vrms I rms cos( )

Average power

Displacement power factor

4

Root-mean squared value of a

periodic waveform with period T

2
Vrms

1 t o T 2

v (t )dt
T to

Compare to the average power

expression

1 t o T
Pavg
p (t )dt
T to

The average value of the squared voltage

compare

Apply v(t) to a resistor

1 t o T
1 to T v 2 (t )
1 t o T 2
Pavg
p (t )dt
v (t )dt

dt

t
t
t
T o
T o R
RT o
2
Vrms
Pavg
R

rms is based on a power concept, describing the

equivalent voltage that will produce a given
average power to a resistor
5

Root-mean squared value of a periodic

waveform with period T
1 t o T 2
2
Vrms
v (t )dt
T to
For the sinusoidal case v(t ) V sin(ot ),
2
Vrms

1 t o T 2 2

V sin (ot )dt
T to

2 t T
2
V
V
o
2
Vrms

1 cos 2(ot ) dt
2T to
2T

t o T

sin 2(ot )
t

to

2
V
V
2
Vrms
, Vrms
2
2
6

RMS of some common periodic waveforms

Duty cycle controller
V

0<D<1
0

By inspection, this is
the average value of
the squared
waveform

DT
T

DT

1 2
1
2
Vrms v (t )dt
T
T

2
V
2
2
V
dt

DT

DV

Vrms V D
7

RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.

Sawtooth
V

2T

2
1
V
V
V

2
2
3T
Vrms t dt
t dt
t

3
3
0
T T
T
3
T
0
0

V
Vrms
3
8

RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.

Using the power concept, it is easy to reason that the following waveforms
would all produce the same average power to a resistor, and thus their rms
values are identical and equal to the previous example
V

-V

V
Vrms
3
9

RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.

Now, consider a useful example, based upon a waveform that is often seen in
DC-DC converter currents. Decompose the waveform into its ripple, plus its
minimum value.

i (t )
Imax Imin

the ripple

i (t )
Imax

I avg

Imin

+
the minimum value

I avg

Imax Imin
2

Imin
0

10

RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.

2
I rms
Avg i (t ) I min 2

2
2
I rms
Avg i2 (t ) 2i (t ) I min I min

2
2
I rms
Avg i2 (t ) 2 I min Avg i (t ) I min

2
I rms

I max I min 2

2I
3

I max I min I 2

min
min
2

Define I PP I max I min

2
I PP
2
2
I rms
I min I PP I min

11

RMS of common periodic waveforms, cont.

I
Recognize that I min I avg PP
2

2
I rms

2
I PP
I
I

I avg PP I PP I avg PP
3
2
2

2
I rms

2
2
I PP
I PP
2

I avg I PP
I avg
I avg I PP
3
2

2
I rms

2
I PP

2
I PP

2
I avg

2
I PP
2
2
I rms I avg

i (t )
I avg

2
I PP
4

I avg

I max I min
2

I PP I max I min

12

12

RMS of segmented waveforms

Consider a modification of the previous example. A constant value exists
during D of the cycle, and a sawtooth exists during (1-D) of the cycle.

i (t )
I avg

In this example, I avg is defined as

the average value of the sawtooth
portion

I PP

Io
DT (1-D)T

t T
to T
t DT

1 o
1 o
2
2
2
2
I rms
i ( t )dt
i ( t )dt i ( t )dt

T
T

to
t o DT
to

1
1
2
I rms
DT
T

DT

to DT

to

to T

1
2
i ( t )dt (1 D )T
i ( t )dt

(1 D )T

t o DT

13

RMS of segmented waveforms, cont.

t o DT

1
1
2
I rms
DT
T

DT

2
I rms

to T

1
2
i ( t )dt (1 D )T
i ( t )dt

(1 D )T
2

to DT

to

1
DT Avg i 2 ( t ) over DT (1 D )T Avg i 2 ( t ) over (1- D)T
T

2
I rms
D Avg i 2 ( t ) over DT (1 D ) Avg i 2 ( t ) over (1- D)T
2
2
I PP
2
2
I rms D I o (1 D ) I avg

12

a weighted average

So, the squared rms value of a segmented waveform can be

computed by finding the squared rms values of each segment,
weighting each by its fraction of T, and adding

14

Practice Problem
The periodic waveform shown is applied to a 100 resistor.
What value of yields 50W average power to the resistor?

15

Fourier series for any physically realizable

periodic waveform with period T
i ( t ) I avg

k 1

k 1

I k sin( ko t k ) I avg I k cos(kot k 90o )

2
2
1

o 2f o f o

1 t T
I avg o i ( t )dt
T to

I k ak2 bk2
sin( k )

ak

2 T
i ( t ) cos ko t dt
T 0

cos( k )

bk

2 T
i ( t ) sin ko t dt
T 0

tan( k )

ak
ak2 bk2
bk
ak2 bk2

sin( k ) ak

cos( k ) bk

When using arctan, be careful

to get the correct quadrant

16

Two interesting properties

Half-wave symmetry,
T
i(t ) i(t )
2

then no even harmonics

(remove the average
value from i(t) before
making the above test)

Time shift,
i ( t T )

I k sin( ko t T k )

k 1

I k sin kot k k o

k 1

where the fundamental angle

shift is o oT .
Thus, harmonic k is shifted by k
times the fundamental angle shift

17

Square wave
T/2
V

V
T

4V
1
4V
v(t )
sin ko t

k 1, k odd k

1
1

sin
1

sin
3

sin
5

o
o
o

3
5

18

Triangle wave
T/2
V

V
T

v(t )

8V
2

k 1, k odd k

cos ko t

8V

1
1

c
os
1

cos
3

cos
5

o
o
o

9
25
2

19

Half-wave rectified cosine wave

I I
2I
k / 2 1 1 cos k t

i ( t ) cos o t

o
2
2
k 2,4,6,
k 1

I I
2I 1
1
1

cos o t
cos
2

cos
4

cos
6

o
o
o

2
3
15
35

20

Triac light dimmer waveshapes

(bulb voltage and current waveforms are identical)
Current

= 30

30 60

90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Angle

Current

= 90

30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360

Angle

Current

= 150

30

60

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

300

330

360

Angle

21

Fourier coefficients for light dimmer waveform

a1

ak

bk

Vp

sin 2 , b1 V p 1
sin
2

Vp

1
1

cos(
1

k
)

cos(
1

k
)

cos(
1

k
)

cos(
1

k
)

, k 3,5,7,...
1 k
1 k

Vp

1
1

sin(
1

k
)

sin(
1

k
)

sin(
1

k
)

sin(
1

k
)

, k 3,5,7,...

1 k
1 k

Vp is the peak value of the underlying AC waveform

22

RMS in terms of Fourier Coefficients

2
V
2
Vrms 2 Vavg
k
2
k 1

which means that

Vrms Vavg

and that

Vrms

Vk
2

for any k

23

Bounds on RMS
From the power concept, it is obvious that the rms voltage or
current can never be greater than the maximum absolute value
of the corresponding v(t) or i(t)
From the Fourier concept, it is obvious that the rms voltage or
current can never be less than the absolute value of the
average of the corresponding v(t) or i(t)

24

Total harmonic distortion THD

(for voltage or current)

2
V
k

THDV 2 k 22
V1

25

Some measured current waveforms

Refrigerator
THDi = 6.3%

240V residential air conditioner

THDi = 10.5%

277V fluorescent light (electronic ballast)

THDi = 11.6%

277V fluorescent light (magnetic

ballast)
THDi = 18.5%
26

Some measured current waveforms, cont.

Vacuum cleaner
THDi = 25.9%

Microwave oven
THDi = 31.9%

PC
THDi = 134%
27

Resulting voltage waveform at the service panel

for a room filled with PCs
THDV = 5.1%
(2.2% of 3rd, 3.9% of 5th, 1.4% of 7th)
200
150
100

Volts

50
0
-50
-100
-150
-200

THDV = 5% considered to be the upper limit before problems are

noticed
THDV = 10% considered to be terrible

28

Some measured current waveforms, cont.

Bad enough to cause
many power electronic
loads to malfunction

5000HP, three-phase, motor drive

(locomotive-size)
29

Now, back to instantaneous power p(t)

i (t )
+
v (t )

p(t ) v(t ) i (t )

Circuit in a box,
two wires

i (t )

ia (t )
+

p (t ) va (t ) ia (t ) vb (t ) ib (t )
Any wire can be the
voltage reference

ib (t )

va (t )

vb (t )

Circuit in a box,
three wires

ia (t ) ib (t )
30

Average power in terms of Fourier coefficients

v ( t ) Vavg

i ( t ) I avg

Vk sin( kot k )

k 1

I k sin( kot k )

k 1

p( t ) Vavg Vk sin( ko t k ) I avg I k sin( ko t k )

k 1
k 1

Pavg

Messy!

1 to T
p( t )dt

t
T o

31

Average power in terms of Fourier coefficients,

cont.
Pavg

1 t o T
p( t )dt
T t o

V
I
Pavg Vavg I avg k k cos( k k )
2
k 1 2

Not wanted in an AC
system
Pavg Pdc
Due to
the DC

Vk ,rms I k ,rms
P1

Due to
the 1st
harmonic

P2
Due to
the 2nd
harmonic

P3
Due to
the 3rd
harmonic

Cross products disappear because

the product of unlike harmonics are
themselves harmonics whose
averages are zero over T!

Harmonic power usually

small wrt. P1
32

Consider a special case where one single harmonic is

superimposed on a fundamental frequency sine wave
Fund. freq
+
Harmonic

Combined

Using the combined waveform,

Determine the order of the harmonic
Estimate the magnitude of the harmonic
From the above, estimate the RMS value of the waveform,
and the THD of the waveform

33

Single harmonic case, cont.

Determine the order of the harmonic
Count the number of cycles of the harmonic,
or the number of peaks of the harmonic

17

T
34

Single harmonic case, cont.

Estimate the magnitude of the harmonic
Estimate the peak-to-peak value of the harmonic where
the fundamental is approximately constant
Viewed near the peak of the underlying fundamental (where the fundamental is reasonably
constant), the peak-to-peak value of the harmonic appears to be about 30
Imagining the underlying fundamental, the peak
value of the fundamental appears to be about 100

Thus, the peak value of the

harmonic is about 15
35

Single harmonic case, cont.

Estimate the RMS value of the waveform
2
2
V2
V
V
2
Vrms 2 Vavg
k 02 1 17
2
2
k 1 2

1002 152 10225

5113V 2
2
2
2

Vrms 71.5V
Note without the harmonic, the rms value would
have been 70.7V (almost as large!)
36

Single harmonic case, cont.

Estimate the THD of the waveform
V2
k

2
V
17
2
2
V
THD 2 k 2
2 17
V12
V12 V12
2
2

V17 15
THD

0.15
V1 100

37

Given single-phase v(t) and i(t) waveforms for a load

Determine their magnitudes and phase angles
Determine the average power
Determine the impedance of the load
Using a series RL or RC equivalent, determine the R and L
or C

38

Determine voltage and current magnitudes and phase angles

Voltage sinewave has peak = 100V, phase angle = 0
Current sinewave has peak = 50A, phase angle = -45
Using a sine reference,

~
~
V 1000 V , I 50 45 A

39

The average power is

V
Ik
k
Pavg Vavg I avg

cos( k k )
2
k 1 2

V1 I1
Pavg 0 0

cos( 1 1 )
2
2
100 50
Pavg

cos 0 ( 45)
2
2

Pavg 1767W
40

The equivalent series impedance is inductive

because the current lags the voltage
~
V
100 0
Z eq ~
2 45 Req jLeq
I 50 45

Req 2 cos(45 ) 1.414

Leq 2 sin( 45 ) 1.414

where is the radian frequency (2f)
If the current leads the voltage, then the impedance angle is
negative, and there is an equivalent capacitance
41

Cs and Ls operating in periodic steady-state

Examine the current passing through a capacitor that is operating
in periodic steady state. The governing equation is
i(t ) C

dv ( t )
dt

t
1 o t
i ( t )dt
which leads to v ( t ) v ( to )

C
to

Since the capacitor is in periodic steady state, then the voltage at time t o is the same as the voltage one
period T later, so

v ( to T ) v ( to ), or

The conclusion is that

t
1 o T
v ( to T ) v ( to ) 0
i ( t )dt
C
to T

i ( t )dt 0

to

which means that

to

the average current through a capacitor operating in periodic steady state is zero

42

Now, an inductor
Examine the voltage across an inductor that is operating in
periodic steady state. The governing equation is
v(t ) L

di ( t )
dt

which leads to

t
1 o t
i ( t ) i ( to )
v ( t )dt

L
to

Since the inductor is in periodic steady state, then the voltage at time t o is the same as the voltage one
period T later, so

i ( to T ) i ( to ), or

The conclusion is that

t
1 o T
i ( to T ) i ( to ) 0
v ( t )dt
L
to T

v ( t )dt 0

to

which means that

to

the average voltage across an inductor operating in periodic steady state is zero

43

KVL and KCL in periodic steady-state

Since KVL and KCL apply at any instance, then they must also be valid
in averages. Consider KVL,

v(t )

0, v1 ( t ) v2 ( t ) v3 ( t ) v N ( t ) 0

Around loop
t
t
t
t
t
1 o T
1 o T
1 o T
1 o T
1 o T
v1 ( t )dt
v2 ( t )dt
v3 ( t )dt
v N ( t )dt
(0)dt 0
T
T
T
T
T
to

to

to

V1avg V2avg V3avg V Navg 0

to

to

KVL applies in the average sense

The same reasoning applies to KCL

i (t )

Out of node

0,

i1 ( t ) i2 ( t ) i3 ( t ) i N ( t ) 0

I1avg I 2avg I 3avg I Navg 0

KCL applies in the average sense

44

KVL and KCL in the average sense

Consider the circuit shown that has a constant duty cycle switch

+ VSavg

+ VRavg

0A

R1
Iavg

+
L

V
Iavg

VLavg = 0

R2

A DC multimeter (i.e., averaging) would show

and would show V = VSavg + VRavg

45

KVL and KCL in the average sense, cont.

Consider the circuit shown that has a constant duty cycle switch

+ VSavg

+ VRavg
R1
Iavg

+
C

V
0

Iavg

VCavg

R2

A DC multimeter (i.e., averaging) would show

and would show V = VSavg + VRavg + VCavg

46

Practice Problem
iin
+
Vin

id

iL

iC

Vout
+

Iout

47

48