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Harmonics :Order and Spectrum
Order:
The order of the harmonic is the
value of the integer which
determines its frequency.
Example: harmonic of order 5,
frequency = 250 Hz
(when fundamental f is 50 Hz)
Spectrum:
The spectrum of a signal is the
graph representing amplitudes
of the harmonics as a function
of their frequency.
3
To summarize: the harmonics are nothing less than the
components of a distorted waveform and their use allows us
to analyse any periodic non-sinusoidal waveform through
different sinusoidal waveform components.
Figure below shows a graphical representation of this
concept.
U1max = 60 V @ 50 Hz U1 U2
U2max = 20 V @ 150 Hz
U3
80
60
40
20 fundamental
0 third harmonic
-20 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 total
-40
-60
-80
5
EXAMPLE OF THE HARMONICS
harmonics analyzis
25
20
15
10 Basic harmonic
5 3th harmonic
Ampers
5th harmonic
0 7th harmonic
9th harmonic
-5 11th harmonic
total curent
-10
-15
-20
-25
6
fundamental + harmonics
25
20
15
10
5
0
-5 1 22 43 64 85 106 127 148 169 190 211 232 253 274 295 316 337 358
-10
-15
-20
-25
7
How harmonics are generated?
t u t u
t t
Linear load Nonlinear load 8
Linear and non-linear loads
A load is said to be linear when there
is a linear relationship between
current and voltage. In simpler terms,
a linear load absorbs a sinusoidal
current when it is supplied by a
sinusoidal voltage: this current may
be displaced by an angle ϕ
compared with voltage.
10
11
Definition and characteristic quantities related to harmonics
Effective value = 2 2 2 2 2
Y1 + Y2 + Y3 + Y4 +…..+Y n
2 2 2 2 2
Irms = 56.2 + 27.2 + 2.7 + 9.2 + 7.8 = 63.6 A 13
Total harmonic distortion
2 2 2 2 2
Y 2 + Y3 + Y4 + Y5 +…..+Y n
THD = 100
Y1
1
(distortion factor) =
2
1 + (THD)
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Individual harmonic ratio
(Frequency) spectrum
16
Power factor (PF) and Displacement Power Factor (DPF)
Distortion factor
The IEC 146-1-1 defines this factor as the ratio between the
power factor and the displacement power factor cos ϕ 1 :
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ν = λ / cos ϕ 1
Peak factor
Fc = Ypeak / Yrms
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The current drawn by non-linear loads passes through all of the
impedance between the system source and load. This current
produces harmonic voltages for each harmonic as it flows
through the system impedance. These harmonic voltages sum
and produce a distorted voltage when combined with the
fundamental. The voltage distortion magnitude is dependent on
the source impedance and the harmonic voltages produced.
19
A non linear load is effectively drawing current from the power
source at the fundamental frequency, and generating current
back at higher frequencies. This results in a distorted current
waveform as shown previous. Current harmonics disturb the
supply voltage and this also results in a distorted voltage at
the point of common coupling. Example: Consumer A and B
are fed from the same line. The non linear loads of consumer
A will distort the voltage of consumer B even if the latter has
only linear loads.
Point of common coupling
A B
system
impedance
20
Voltage and current total harmonic distortion
22
Sources of Harmonics
There are many sources of power system harmonics. Some
examples of harmonic producing devices are:
Transformers: Third harmonic currents are present in the
magnetizing current (a small portion of the transformer full load
current). If the transformer saturates (due to over-voltage), the
harmonic distortion level of the current increases substantially.
Fluorescent Lamps: These devices produce a predominantly
third order harmonic current
on the order of 20% to 30% of the fundamental current.
Electronic ballasts have slightly
different characteristics but exhibit similar levels of harmonics.
Pulse-Width Modulated Converters: These devices use an
external controller for switching the input transistors allowing
the current waveform to be shaped more desirably. However,
these converters are limited in power and typically used in
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applications less than a few hundred kilowatts.
Switched Mode Power Supplies: Typically found in single-
phase electronic devices such as computers and other
business and consumer electronics, these devices use a
switching regulator to precisely control the DC voltage. The
input of these power supplies normally consists of a full-wave
bridge rectifier and a DC filter capacitor which produces
an alternating pulse current waveform rich in third harmonic.
Though they are not used in large power applications, the
cumulative effects of many devices may create concerns,
particularly for 400/230 Volt Y systems.
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Wave shape of current absorbed by some non-linear loads.
25
Three-phase rectifier with front end capacitor
26
Harmonic currents in three phase systems
Neutral conductor
27
With, for example, an harmonic 3 of 75%, the current flowing
in the neutral is 2.25 times the fundamental. The current in
each phase is only SQR (1+ 0.752 ) = 1.25 times the
fundamental.
neutral current
150
100
50
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37
-50
-100
-150
28
Induction motor
30
b) The copper losses correspond to the power dissipated
by Joule effect in the transformer windings. As the
frequency rises (starting from 350 Hz) the current tends to
thicken on the surface of the conductors (skin effect); under
these
circumstances, the conductors offer a smaller cross section
to the current flow, since the losses by Joule effect
increase.
31
c) The third aspect is relevant to the effects of the triple-N
harmonics (homopolar harmonics) on the transformer
windings. In case of delta windings, the harmonics flow
through the windings and do not propagate upstream
towards the network since they are all in phase; the delta
windings therefore represent a barrier for triple-N harmonics,
but it is necessary to pay particular attention to this type of
harmonic components for a correct dimensioning of the
transformer. The triplen harmonics are trapped and circulate
in the delta primary of the transformer. Since most loads
produce high levels of the 3rd harmonic (one of the triplens),
the harmonic content reflected back to the source is reduced.
The circulating harmonics in the primary of the transformer
creates heat because of their higher frequencies. For this
reason, a transformer that can handle the excess heat is
needed. This transformer is called a K-rated transformer
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Induction motor
35
Harmonic currents in three-phase four-wire networks
n=
uan (t) = Um cos ω t ia(t) = Σ Ian cos (nω t – ϕ an )
n=1
n=
ubn (t) = Um cos (ω t-120) ib(t) = Σ Ibn cos [n(ω t – 120) - ϕ bn ]
n=1
n=
ucn (t) = Um cos (ω t-120) ic(t) = Σ Icn cos [n(ω t + 120) - ϕ36 cn ]
n=1
Neutral current
n=
iN(t) = Σ { Ian cos (nω t – ϕ an ) + Ibn cos [n(ω t – 120) – ϕ bn ]
n=1
+ Icn cos [n(ω t + 120) – ϕ cn ] }
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39
Example
The triplen harmonics in the three phases add, such that 20%
third harmonic leads to 60% third harmonic neutral current.
Significant unexpected neutral current flows.
40
n=
I2 n
Generally the rms current = Σ
n=1 2
n=
I2 n ( I 1 )2 ( I 3 )2
I1rms = Σ =
2
+
2
n=1 2
( I1 )2 (0.2 I1 )2 I1 I1
I1rms = + = 1 + 0.04
2 2 2 2
Yet the presence of the third harmonic has very little effect
on the rms value of the line current.
41
Y-connected nonlinear load, no neutral connection:
n=
iN(t) = Σ 3 In cos (nω t –
n=3.6.9..
ϕ n) 42
But iN (t) = 0, since there is no neutral connection and the ac
line currents cannot contain triplen harmonics.
What happens?
43
Delta-connected load
44
Harmonic currents in power factor correction capacitors
Irms
rated rms voltage Urms =
2π fC
I2rms
rated reactive power QC =
2π fC
45
46
Average power
{
= Un In
2
cos (ϕ n –θ m) if n = m
transmitted to the load
only when the Fourier
series of u(t) and i(t)
contain terms at the
Expression for average power same frequency. For
becomes example, if the voltage
Un In and current both
Pav = Σ cos (ϕ n – θ n) contain third harmonic,
n=1 2 then they lead to the
average power:
U3 I3
cos (ϕ 3 – θ 3)48
2
Example 1
u (t) i (t)
49
Example 2
u (t), i (t)
Voltage: third harmonic only
Current: third harmonic only,
in phase with voltage
50
Example 3
Fourier series:
u(t) = 1.2 cos (ω t) + 0.33 cos (3ω t) + 0.2 cos (5ω t)
i(t) = 0.6 cos (ω t + 30°) + 0.1 cos (5ω t + 45°) + 0.1 cos (7ω t + 60°)
(1.2)(0.6) (0.2)(0.1)
Pav = cos (30°) + cos (45°) = 0.32 W
2 2
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Voltage: 1st, 3rd, 5th
Current: 1st, 5th, 7th
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In AC circuits the fundamental current and fundamental voltage
together produce fundamental power. This fundamental power
is the useful power that cause motor to rotate and deliver work
on the rotor’s shaft or to make electrical heater to deliver heat.
The product of a harmonic voltage times the corresponding
harmonic current also produces a harmonic power. That one is
usually dissipated as a heat and does not do useful work.
Harmonic currents and voltages should be kept as small as
possible.
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GENERATING HARMONICS WITH SWITCH
Irms = 70.7 A
Closed switch
Synchronous I = 1000/10 = 100 A
1000 V switch R
60 Hz 10 P = I2R = 1002x10
Ω = 100 kW
Operational switch
(half time opened)
1410 V
Dissipated power = 50 kW
141 A
I2 = P/R = 50000/10 = 5000
I = 70.7 A
2
P = I2 x R = 70.7 x 10
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P = 50 kW
Chopped current
The chopped current can be
1410 V Fundamental decomposed to fundamental
component and harmonics component.
141 A
84 A
The 10Ω resistor absorbs a
fundamental active power
32.50
P = I2 x R = 59.32 x 10 = 35.2 kW
Apparent fundamental power supplied
by source The difference of 50 – 35.2 = 14.8 kW
S = U x I = 1000 x 84/1.414 = 59.3 kVA goes to the harmonic power absorbed
by resistor
Active fundamental power supplied by
source 14.8kW
P = S x cosϕ = 59.3 x cos 32.5 = 50 IF = 59.3 ∠-32.5 A
kW
31.9kVAr
Reactive fundamental power supplied
14.8kW
by source 1 kV
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Short Term Effects
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Harmful Effects on Receivers
Cables:
Overheating of cables
Additional losses due to skin effect
Increase in dielectric losses of insulation
Induction motors:
Increase in core (stator) and Joule losses
Pulsating torques causing efficiency reduction,
abnormal vibration, rotor overheating
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General Solutions
Oversize equipment
61
Harmonic Currents add in the Neutral
The 120°
phase shift
between linear
load currents
will result in
their balanced
portions
instantaneously
canceling in the
neutral.
With linear loads, the neutral can be the same size as the
phase conductors because the neutral current cannot be
larger than the largest phase current, even when the load
is completely unbalanced. 62
When the load is non-
linear however, the
current pulse on one
phase will not have a
pulse on either of the
other phases for
which to cancel. The
pulses are additive
which often leads to
heavier current on the
neutral conductor than
on any phase
conductor. The
frequency of this With non-linear loads, the neutral
neutral current is current generally exceeds the largest
primarily 150 Hz (3rd phase current, even when the loads
harmonic). are in perfect RMS current balance.63
The presence of harmonic currents can also lead to some
special problems in three-phase systems:
• In a four-wire three-phase system, harmonic currents can
lead to large currents in the neutral conductors, which may
easily exceed the conductor rms current rating
• Power factor correction capacitors may experience
significantly increased rms currents, causing them to fail
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K factor
Pn = Pf In2 n2
where
Pn is the eddy current loss at harmonic number n
Pf is the eddy current loss at the fundamental frequency f
In is the fraction of total rms load current at harmonic number n
The total eddy current loss is given by summing the losses for
the individual harmonics and the fundamental:
n = max
Pt = Pf Σn=1
In2 n2
Pt n = max
K= = Σ In2 n2
Pf n=1
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Factor K
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A standardized empirical formula (NFC 52-114) is used to
calculate the de-rating factor k to be applied to a transformer.
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K-Rated or De-Rated?
72
On the other hand, de-rating a standard transformer has a
number of disadvantages. Because the transformer is
oversized, the primary over-current protection level may be too
high to protect the secondary, but if the protection level is
reduced, the inrush current may cause tripping. A de-rated
transformer is less efficient; the excess losses are still being
generated and dissipated within the transformer, rather than
being designed out, and a larger core than necessary, with
larger losses, is being magnetized.
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Typical calculation according to BS 7821 Part 4
(taking q as 1.7 and assuming that eddy current loss at
fundamental is 10% of resistive loss i.e. e = 0.1).
Harmonic RMS In/I1 (In/I1)
2
nq nq (In/I1)
2
1 1 1 1
3 0.82 0.82 0.6724 6.473 4.3525
5 0.58 0.58 0.3364 15.426 5.1893
7 0.38 0.38 0.1444 27.332 3.9467
9 0.18 0.18 0.0324 41.900 1.3576
11 0.045 0.045 0.0020 58.934 0.1193
Σ =2.1876 Σ =14.9653
XL = 2 π f L (Ω )
XL = XC
f (hz)
Capacitive reactance
1 resonant
XC = (Ω ) frequency
2π fC XC
76
1 1
XL = XC = X = 2 π f L = fr =
2π fC 2π LC
SSC 27491
System harmonic calculation: n = = = 10.9
QC 230 78
This calculation indicates that the resonant frequency can
develop if the distribution system contains the 11th harmonic
in any significant amount, causing the capacitor to overheat
and possibly, explode.
Using detuning reactors
This solution consists of protecting the capacitors, designed
to improve the displacement power factor by installing a
series reactor. This reactor is calculated so that resonance
frequency matches none of the harmonics present.
Typical tuning frequencies are for a 50 Hz fundamental: 135
Hz (order 2.7), 190 Hz (order 3.8) and 255 Hz (order 4.5).
Thus for the fundamental, the battery can perform its
displacement power factor improvement function, while the
high impedance of the reactor limits amplitude of the
harmonic currents. 79
PFC capacitors are usually not intended to conduct significant
harmonic currents.
Heating in capacitors is a function of capacitor equivalent
series resistance (esr) and rms current. The maximum
allowable rms current then leads to the capacitor rating:
Irms
rated rms voltage Urms =
2π fC
I2rms
rated reactive power QC =
2π fC
80
Evaluating System Harmonics
In order to prevent or correct harmonic problems that could
occur within an industrial facility, an evaluation of system
harmonics should be performed if the facility conditions
meet one or more of the criteria below.
1.The application of capacitor banks in systems where 20% or
more of the load includes other harmonic generating equipment
or where background distortion exceeds 2%.
2.The facility has a history of harmonic related problems,
including excessive capacitor fuse operation.
3.Large single non-linear loads are being added greater than
about 10% of the transformer rating.
4.Many small identical non-linear loads are being added that
operate together.
In facilities where restrictive power company requirements limit
the harmonic injection back into their system to very small
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magnitudes.
Mitigation of Harmonics
Addition of a
downstream
reactor or
reduction in
upstream source
impedance
reduces voltage
THD at the point
considered.
82
Carefully choosing the installation structure
87
Engineering recommendation G5/4
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Features of G5/4
92
Compatibility levels in voltage systems are based on the
immunity of capacitors as they are susceptible to harmonic
voltage distortion and are common in use.
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Voltage distortion limits
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96
97
98
99
100
101
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