THERMAL AND HEAT

CONCEPTS: AN
INTRODUCTION
CVNG 1008

Lecture objectives

PART 1
To define heat and temperature.
To introduce principal mechanisms of heat
flow/transfer.
To underline the importance of heat and
temperature measurement in the built environment.
PART 2
To provide practical examples of heat transfer in
a construction context. Examples will be reinforced
with relevant calculations.
To examine the process of structural and
ventilation heat loss rates and their prediction.

Nature of Heat

Heat is the form of energy called

thermal energy

. Thermal energy is the energy

portion of a system that increases
or decreases with its temperature.

What is Thermal energy??

Heat Transfer is the transfer of

thermal energy from one body to
another due to a temperature
difference between the bodies

What is temperature???

On the microscopic scale, temperature

is defined as the average energy of
microscopic motions of a single particle
in the system per degree of freedom.
On the macroscopic scale, temperature
is the unique physical property that
determines the direction of heat flow
between two objects placed in thermal
contact.

Source of thermal energy in

buildings
Source of energy:
Coal
Crude oil
natural gas
Petrol
Wood chips and pellets
sun

Three mechanisms by which

thermal energy is transported
Conduction
Convection and
Radiation

Three mechanisms by
which
thermal energy is
1. Convection
transported
Some examples of natural convection are;

1. The domestic hot water system inside the hot

water cylinder.
2. The draught up a chimney.
3. The heating of rooms by convector heaters and
radiators.
4. The draught under a window.

What is heat conduction

Conduction
When heat is transferred through a solid
substance, the molecules are unable to move
and start to vibrate. This vibration is passed to
the next molecule by a chain reaction. In this
way heat is transferred through a material and
the process of CONDUCTION takes place

Convection

Latin: com (together) + vehere (to carry);

the
bulk movement of thermal energy in fluids

Heat Conduction

H = kA (T2 - T1)/L
(joules/second)

Example

Answer
Steel: k = 14 J/s-m-C
How much energy is
conducted in 40 seconds?
-------------------------H= kA (T2 - T1)/L
H= 14 (2)(475)/10
= 1330 J/s
Q= Ht = 1330 (40)
= 5.32 x 104 J

How many joules of thermal energy

flow through the wall per second?
----------------------------------------------k (insulation) = 0.20 J/(s-m-C)
k (wood)
= 0.80 J/(s-m-C)

Solution

Across insulation:
Hins = (0.20)(40)(25 - T)/0.076 (1)
= 2631.6 -105.3 T (2)
Across wood:
Hwood = (0.80)(40)(T - 4)/0.019
= 1684.2 T - 6736.8
Heat is like a fluid: whatever flows through the
insulation must also flow through the wood:
Hwood = Hins
1684.2 T - 6736.8 = 2631.6 -105.3 T (3)
1789.5 T = 9368.4 (4)
T = 5.235 C
(5)
H= Hwood = Hins
(6)
H= 1684.2 (5.235) - 6736.8 = 2080 J/s (7)
H= 2631.6 - 105.3 (5.235) = 2080 J/s (8)

Radiation Heat

Radiation Heat can be transferred

through a vacuum from one body to
another.
A good example of this is the heat from
the sun, which passes through space to
reach the earth.
This process is neither convection nor
conduction.

Radiation Heat

The heat is carried in waveform in the

same way as light is carried.

This is called electromagnetic radiation.

Other forms of electromagnetic radiation

are infrared, ultra-violet, X-rays and gamma
rays.

Important to know on Radiation Heat

Heat radiation is part of the same

spectrum as light radiation, it obeys
approximately the same rules, the most
important ones being:
1. It does not require a medium for
transmission
2. It travels in straight lines.
3. It can be reflected and refracted in
the same way as light.

Radiation

Energy radiated per second:

H = esAT4
e = emissivity (0-1)
s = Stefan-Boltzmann constant
= 5.67 x 10-8 J/(s-m2-K4)
A = surface area of object
T = Kelvin temperature

Emissivity

Energy out = Energy in

Emitted energy/Incident energy = Emissivity = e.

Radiation (Exercise)

How much energy is radiated by

this
object in ten minutes?

-------------------------------------------------H = esAT4

answer

t = 10 x 60 seconds = 600 s
Q = radiant energy = H t
H = esA T4
Q = (0.8)(5.67x10-8)(5)(500)4 x
(600)
= 8.5 x 106 J

THERMAL COMFORT

According to ASHRAE (American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers) Human
thermal comfort is defined as the state
of mind that expresses satisfaction with
the surrounding environment
Human thermal comfort is governed by
many physiological mechanisms variable
for each individual
Based on Basal metabolic rate (BMR) (energy measure when
completely at rest) Muscular metabolic Rate (MMR):

See you notes and available literature

LOSS of EXCESSIVE HEAT

Convection
30%

Evaporation
25%

Skin Surface
Temperature
32C
Conduction

Radiation Losses
About 45% of
our Energy

Excessive body heat

i) Conduction: A temperature
gradient thus occurs between the
body core and the body surface.
ii) Radiation: About 45% of body
heat is lost in this way.
iii) Convection: Some 30% of body
heat is dissipated by convection.
iv)Evaporation: About 25%
perspiration(breathing sweating etc)

Factors affecting thermal

comfort

Personal variables

(activity, clothing, age,

gender)

and

Physical variables

(air temperature, surface

temperature, air movement and Humidity)

Factors influencing
thermal comfort
(personal variables)

Activity

Clothing

Age

sex

Factors influencing
thermal comfort (physical
variables)

The parameters that must be

measured are those which
affect energy loss such as:

Mean Radiant
Temperature(MRT)

MRT = the average temperature

affected by the radiation from
surrounding surfaces.

MRT =

Sources of Humidity in the air

The amount of water produced from normal household

activities can be quite considerable.
using bottled gas and paraffin heaters add significant
amounts of water to the air
Drying clothes over radiators will also significantly add
water vapour.
The surface area of your lungs is in excess of 75 square
metres and warm air is passing over this wet surface as
we breathe 15-20 times per minute; this is being
breathed back into the environment!
Animals such as a large dog can give off even more
water vapour than the average adult!

Source of heat into the

building
Solar radiation is transmitted into
buildings through;
windows,
walls,
roof,
floor and
by admitting external air into the
building.

Heat transfer on roofs

THERMAL: HEAT BALANCE

Thermal balance occurs when the

sum of all the different types of
heat flow into and out of a building
is zero. That is, the building is
losing as much heat as it gains so
it can be said to be in equilibrium.

THERMAL: HEAT BALANCE

Effects of excessive
temperature
If the core temperature varies
from 37C;
Productivity and efficiency
falls
Errors occur much more
frequently
The ability to do work
generally decreases.

Insulating materials

A thermal insulator is a material which

opposes the transfer of heat between
areas of different temperatures
Thermal insulator should have low
density (why?)

Importance of Thermal
Insulation within a Building

To maintain constant temperature by

restriction on the exchange of heat energy
Conservation of energy and natural
environment (Sustainability)
Reduce cooling/heating cost
Unlike heating and cooling equipment,
insulation is permanent and does not require
maintenance, upkeep, or adjustment.
Absorb noise and vibration, both coming from
the outside and from other rooms inside the
building, thus producing a more comfortable
occupant environment.

insulators for Construction

purposes

Rigid preformed materials

aerated

concrete blocks

Flexible materials
Loose fill materials

fibreglass quilts
expanded

polystyrene granules

Site formed materials - foamed polyurethane

Reflective materials
- aluminium foil
Ceramics and Insulative paints - which
contain ceramic micro-spheres.
More information on micro spheres read:
http://www.compositesworld.com/articles/microspheres-fillers-filled-withpossibilities

Thermal resistant must

have

Strength and rigidity for the purposes

Moisture resistant
Fire resistant
Resistance to pests and fungi
Compatibility with adjacent materials
Harmless to human and environment
Must be sustainable

Solar Gain Through

Fenestration
When solar radiation strikes on an
unshaded window,
(a) part of the radiant energy is reflected
back outdoors,
(b) part of the radiant energy is absorbed
within the glass,
(c) the remainder is transmitted directly
indoor, and
(d) the absorbed portion comes out again
and flows either outward and inward.

Distribution of Solar Radiation

Falling on 3mm Clear Plate

Clear
or SheetGlasses
Glasses
TypePlate
of Window

These are the types of glass which

provide fine visual qualities and also a
greater transmittance of solar radiation.

Tinted Heat Absorbing Glasses

These types of glass are manufactured
to have bronze, grey and blue-green
colours. Tinted heat absorbing glasses
absorb a greater amount of infra-red
with some reduction of visible light.

Type of Window Glasses

Reflective Coated Glasses

These types of glasses have a microscopically

thin metallic layer of ceramic layer coated on
one of the surfaces

Insulating Glasses

These are made of two or three pieces of

glasses separated by metal or rubber spacer
around the edge and sealed in a stainless steel
structure. The dehydrated airspace (6-12 mm)
between the glass panes enhances the thermal
insulation of the unit.

Glass windows VS Greenhouse Effect

Window glass allows short-wave solar

radiation get into an interior space.
This radiation is absorbed by the
interior of the building.
The interior then radiates long-wave,
thermal radiation.
Glass is opaque (not transparent) to
this long wave radiation.
Thus heat energy is trapped in the
building and the indoor air
temperature rises.

Radiation energy emitted

by a human being

The sun provides about 1000 watts per

square meter at the Earth's surface. 30
% is reflected by human skin.

How much do the human body absorb

the energy from the sun?

If heat energy due to radiation is measured using H =

esA T4. Find irradiative energy emitted by healthy human
being If estimated surface area of human being is 1.5 m 2

Example: How much does

the human body radiate?

----------------------------------------------------------------------Body temperature = 37 C = 37 +273 = 310 K,

Estimate surface area A = 1.5 m2 e = 0.70
H = esA T4
= (0.70)(5.67 x 10-8)(1.5 m2)(310)4
= 550 watts(5 light bulbs)
-----------------------------------------------------------------------

Excercise

Example 1 : Standing
outdoors temperature 370C:

Example 2: Standing
outdoors temperature20
degrees centigrade:

Examples radiation

Example 1 : Standing outdoors on hot day:

Body temperature: 37 C = 37 +273 = 310 K,
Air temperature: 37 C = 310 K

Hnet = esA [T4 - T04] = esA [3104 - 3104]

=0
Example 2: Standing outdoors on morning:
Body temperature = 37 C = 37 +273 = 310 K,
Air temperature = 20 C = 293 K
A = 1.5 m2 e = 0.70
Hnet = esA [T4 - T04]
= (0.70)(5.67 x 10-8)(1.5 m2)(3104 - 2934)
=
watts

measures which can be adopted to

reduce solar radiation in buildings.

External and internal shading and by

careful building design.
Natural vegetation such as tall trees can
also reduce solar heat gains.
Window areas can be reduced although
natural day lighting is important in
northern latitudes in winter so there is a
limit to glass reduction.
Buildings can be orientated so that there is
less window area facing west

References

Randall McMullan (2002)

Environmental Science in Building
fifth Edition PelgraveMacMillan
David M. Egan (1975) Concept in
thermal comfort prentice Hall New
Jersey

What you must know

Q1: If vacuum and air are the best

insulators why are they not used
as Thermal insulator?
Q2: Comment on the applications
of Aluminum as an insulator while
is a good conductor of heat.

Answers

Vacuum provides perfect insulation against

conduction but is not practical for every
purpose
Air is the mixture of gases with atom widely
spaced therefore can provide good insulation
against conduction but must be held still. The
movement of air transfers heat by convection
method.
Solution is to trap and hold air still used other
materials i.e. fibres, aerated structures etc