Surface Technology

Introduction
You can see or feel surface roughness,
waviness, color, reflectivity, texture, and other
features such as scratches, nicks, and
depressions.
Prior to purchasing a household appliance,
kitchen utensil, or automobile, you inspect its
surfaces.

Introduction
Machinery and accessories, including a variety
of manufacturing equipment such as presses
and machine tools, often have members that
slide against each other:
{.
{.
{.
{.
{.

pistons and cylinders,

slideways,
bearings,
cutting and forming tools, and
dies.

Introduction
Close examination reveals that:
{. some of these surfaces are smooth while others are
rough,
{. some are lubricated while others are dry, and
{. some are subjected to heavy loads while others
support light loads. Moreover,
{. some surfaces are subjected to elevated
temperatures (hot-working dies) while others are at
room temperature, and
{. some surfaces slide against each other at high
relative speeds (high cutting speeds) while others
move slowly (saddle on a machine tool bed).
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Surfaces: Their Nature, Roughness,

and Measurement

1. INTRODUCTION

Introduction
This lecture discusses:
{. the nature of surfaces and their structures;
{. the effects of surfaces on work pieces, tools, and
dies; and
{. the influence of surfaces on manufacturing
operations and the service life of manufactured
products.

Introduction
In order to define surface roughness, we have
to know the methods by which surface
roughness is measured in engineering practice,
including the instrumentation involved.
This lecture will introduce typical surface
roughness ranges encountered in engineering
practice.

Introduction

2. SURFACE STRUCTURE AND

PROPERTIES
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Surface Structure and Properties

Upon close examination of the surface of a
piece of metal, you will find that it generally
consists of several layers.

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Surface Structure and Properties

The bulk metal, also known as the metal
substrate, has a structure that depends on the
composition and processing history of the
metal.
Above this bulk metal is a layer that usually has
been plastically deformed and work hardened
during the manufacturing process.

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Surface Structure and Properties

The depth and properties of the work-hardened
layer the surface structure depend on
factors such as the processing method used
and frictional sliding to which the surface was
subjected.
Sharp tools and selection of proper process
parameters produce surfaces with little or no
disturbance.
For example, if the surface is produced by
machining with a dull tool or under poor cutting
conditions or is ground with a dull grinding
wheel, this layer will be relatively thick.
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Surface Structure and Properties

Also, non-uniform surface deformation or
severe temperature gradients during
manufacturing operations usually cause
residual stresses in this work-hardened layer.
Unless the metal is processed and kept in an
inert (oxygen-free) environment, or it is a noble
metal, such as gold or platinum, an oxide layer
usually lies on top of the work-hardened layer.

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Surface Structure and Properties

For example:
{. Iron has an oxide structure with FeO adjacent to the
bulk metal, followed by a layer of Fe3O4 and then a
layer of Fe2O3, which is exposed to the environment.
{. Aluminum has a dense, amorphous (without
crystalline structure) layer of Al2O3, with a thick,
porous hydrated aluminum-oxide layer over it.
{. Copper has a bright, shiny surface when freshly
scratched or machined. Soon after, however, it
develops a Cu2O layer, which is then covered with a
layer of CuO. This gives copper its somewhat dull
color, such as we see in kitchen utensils.
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Surface Structure and Properties

{. Stainless steels are "stainless" because they
develop a protective layer of chromium oxide
(passivation).

Under normal environmental conditions, surface

oxide layers are generally covered with
adsorbed layers of gas and moisture

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Surface Structure and Properties

Finally, the outermost surface of the metal may
be covered with contaminants, such as dirt,
dust, grease, lubricant residues, cleaningcompound residues, and pollutants from the
environment.
Thus, surfaces generally have properties that
are very different from those of the substrate.
The oxide on a metal's surface, for example, is
generally much harder than the base metal.
Hence oxides tend to be brittle and abrasive.

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Surface Structure and Properties

As it will be seen throughout the rest of this and
the next two lectures, this surface characteristic
has several important effects on friction, wear,
and lubrication in materials processing and on
products.
The factors involved in the surface structure of
metals are also relevant to a great extent to the
surface structure of plastics and ceramics.

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Surface Structure and Properties

The surface texture of these materials depends,
as with metals, on the method of production.
Environmental conditions also influence the
surface characteristics of these materials.

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3. SURFACE INTEGRITY

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Surface Integrity
Surface integrity describes not only the
topological (geometric) aspects of surfaces and
their physical and chemical properties but also
their mechanical and metallurgical properties
and characteristics.
Surface integrity is an important consideration in
manufacturing operations because it influences
the properties of the product, such as its fatigue
strength, resistance to corrosion, and service
life.

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Surface Integrity
Several defects caused by and produced during
component manufacturing can be responsible
for inadequate surface integrity.
These defects are usually caused by a
combination of factors, such as:
{. defects in the original material,
{. the method by which the surface is produced, and
{. lack of proper control of process parameters

that can result in excessive stresses and

temperatures.

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Surface Integrity
The following are definitions (listed in
alphabetical order) of the major surface defects
found in practice.
{. Cracks are external or internal separations with
sharp outlines. Cracks requiring a magnification of
10X or higher to be seen by the naked eye are called
microcracks.
{. Craters are shallow depressions.
{. Folds are the same as seams.
{. Heat-affected zone is the portion of a metal
subjected to thermal cycling without melting.

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Surface Integrity
{. Inclusions are small, nonmetallic elements or
compounds in the metal.
{. Intergranular attack is the weakening of grain
boundaries by liquid-metal embrittlement and
corrosion.
{. Laps are the same as seams.
{. Metallurgical transformation involves microstructural
changes caused by temperature and pressure
cycling. Included are phase transformations,
recrystallization, alloy depletion, decarburization, and
molten and recast, resolidified, or redeposited
material, as in electrical-discharge machining.

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Surface Integrity
{. Pits are shallow surface depressions, usually the
result of chemical or physical attack.
{. Plastic deformation is a severe surface deformation
caused by high stresses due to friction, tool and die
geometry, worn tools, and method of processing.
{. Residual stresses are surface stresses (tension or
compression) caused by nonuniform deformation
and temperature distribution.
{. Seams are surface defects resulting from
overlapping of the material during processing.
{. Splatter consists of small resolidified molten metal
particles deposited on a surface, as from welding.

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Techniques for testing surface structure

One of the most commonly used techniques for
testing surface integrity is metallography.
Samples are removed from the workpiece,
polished, etched, and observed under an optical
or electron microscope.
The test samples are usually much smaller than
the part or component being analyzed, so they
must be taken from appropriate locations in the
workpiece.
Several nondestructive techniques used to
observe and test surfaces are described in next
lecture
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4. SURFACE TEXTURE

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Surface Texture
Regardless of the method of production, all
surfaces have their own characteristics, which
we refer to as surface texture.
The description of surface texture as a
geometrical property is complex.
However, certain guidelines have been
established for identifying surface texture in
terms of well-defined and measurable quantities
(next page Figure).

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Terminology of surface texture

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Surface Texture
Flaws, or defects, are random irregularities,
such as scratches, cracks, holes, depressions,
seams, tears, and inclusions.
Lay, or directionalities, the direction of the
predominant surface pattern and is usually
visible to the naked eye.
Roughness consists of closely spaced,
irregular deviations on a scale smaller than that
of waviness. Roughness may be superimposed
on waviness. Roughness is expressed in terms
of its height, its width, and the distance on the
surface.along which it is measured.
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Surface Texture
Waviness is a recurrent deviation from a flat
surface, much like waves on the surface of water.
It is measured and described in terms of the space
between adjacent crests of the waves (waviness
width) and height between the crests and valleys of
the waves (waviness height).
Waviness may be caused by deflections of tools,
dies, and the workpiece, warping from forces or
temperature, uneven lubrication, and vibration or
any periodic mechanical or thermal variations in the
system during the manufacturing process.
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5. SURFACE ROUGHNESS

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Surface Roughness
Surface roughness is generally described by
two methods: arithmetic mean value (Ra); and
root-mean-square average (Rq) formerly
identified as AA for arithmetic average or CLA
for center-line average) is based on the
schematic illustration of a rough surface shown
in next page Figure.

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Koordinat untuk Pengukuran

Kekasaran Permukaan

Koordinat yang digunakan untuk pengukuran kekasaran permukaan.

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Surface Roughness
The arithmetic mean value R, is defined as

a b c d
Ra
,
n

equation (1.1)

The root-mean-square average (Rq; formerly

identified as RMS) is defined as

a b c d
Rq
n
2

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equation (1.2)

Surface Roughness

The datum line AB in the Figure is located so that

the sum of the areas above the line is equal to the
sum of the areas below the line.

The units generally used for surface roughness

are m (micrometer, or micron) or in.
(microinch), where 1 m = 40 in. and 1 in. =
0.025 m.
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Surface Roughness
Additionally, we may also use the maximum
roughness height (Rt) as a measure of
roughness.
It is defined as the height from the deepest
trough to the highest peak (see the Figure).

Rt

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Surface Roughness
It indicates the amount of material that has to be
removed to obtain a smooth surface by
polishing or other means.
Because of its simplicity, the arithmetic mean
value Ra was adopted internationally in the mid1950s and is widely used in engineering
practice.
Equations (1.1) and (1.2) show that there is a
relationship between Rq and Ra.

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Surface Roughness
For a surface roughness in the shape of a sine
curve: Rq = 1.11 x Ra

For other shapes:

{. 1.1 for most machining processes by cutting,
{. 1.2 for grinding, and
{. 1.4 for lapping and honing.

In general, a surface cannot be described by its

Ra or Rq value alone, since these values are
averages.

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Surface Roughness Comparison

Standards

Sumber: http://bbs.homeshopmachinist.net/showthread.php?t=28353
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Surface Roughness
Two surfaces may have the same roughness
value but their actual topography may be quite
different.
A few deep troughs, for example, affect the
roughness values insignificantly.
However, the type of surface profile can be
significant in terms of fatigue, friction, and the
wear characteristics of a manufactured product.

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Symbols for surface roughness

Acceptable limits for surface roughness are
specified on technical drawings by the symbols
shown around the check mark in the Figure and
their values are placed to the left of the check
mark.

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Symbols for surface roughness

The symbols and their meaning concerning lay
are given in the next Figure.
Note that the symbol for lay is placed at the
lower right of the check mark.
Symbols used to describe a surface only specify
the roughness, waviness, and lay; they do not
include flaws.
Whenever important, a special note is included
in technical drawings to describe the method to
be used to inspect for surface flaws.

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Standar Simbul Guratan untuk

Permukaan Teknik
Lay
Symbol

Interpretation

Lay parallel to the line representing the

surface to which the symbol is applied

Lay perpendicular to the line

representing the surface to which the
symbol is applied

Lay angular in both directions to the line

representing the surface to which the
symbol is applied

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Examples

Standar Simbul Guratan (Lay) untuk

Permukaan Teknik
Lay
Symbol

Interpretation

Lay multidirectional

Lay approximately circular relative to the

center of the surface to which the symbol
is applied

Lay approximately radial relative to the

center of the surface to which the symbol
is applied

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Examples

Standar Simbul Guratan (Lay) untuk

Permukaan Teknik
Lay
Symbol

Interpretation

Pitted, protuberant, porous, or particulate

non-directional lay

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Examples

Measuring surface roughness

Various commercially available instruments,
called surface profilometers, are used to measure
and record surface roughness.
The most commonly used instruments feature a
diamond stylus traveling along a straight line over
the surface (see Figure).

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Measuring surface roughness

The distance that the stylus travels, which can be
varied, is called the cutoff (see Figure).

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49

Measuring surface roughness

To highlight the roughness, profilometer traces are
recorded on an exaggerated vertical scale (a few orders
of magnitude greater than the horizontal scale; (see
Figure), called gain on the recording instrument.

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Measuring surface roughness

Thus the recorded profile is significantly distorted, and the
surface appears to be much rougher than it actually is.
The recording instrument compensates for any surface
waviness and indicates only roughness.
A record of the surface profile is made by mechanical and
electronic means.

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Measuring surface roughness

Because of the finite radius of the stylus tip, the
path of the stylus is smoother than the actual
surface roughness (note the path with the
broken line in).

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Measuring surface roughness

The smaller the tip radius and the smoother the
surface, the closer the path of the stylus will
represent the actual surface profile.
The most commonly used stylus diameter is 10
m (400 in.).
We can observe surface roughness directly
through an optical or SEM (scanning electron
microscope).

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