Mgt 612: Leading

Projects: The Human Side

of Project Management

Theoretical Perspectives

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

Perspectives on Leadership
Behavioral and trait
perspectives
Who are leaders?
What

do leaders do?
(e.g. task and relationship
management)

Follower
perspectives
How

do leaders
affect others?(e.g.
Charismatic and
Transformational
Leadership)
Contingency
perspectives

Emotional

symbolic

When

should they do
it? (e.g. LPC and Path
Goal Theories)
Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

and

Two Contingency Theories

The Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC)

Moderating influence of three

situational variables on the relationship
between a leader trait (LPC) and
subordinate performance.

The Path-Goal Theory

Leaders job is to:

Demonstrate relationship(path) between

effort and outcomes
motivate others to make the efforts

How and when aspects of leader

behavior influence subordinate
satisfaction and motivation.

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

Fiedlers LPC Scale

Least Preferred Co-worker
Pleasant
Friendly
Rejecting
Helpful
Unenthusiastic
Tense
Distant
Cold
Cooperative
Supportive
Boring
Quarrelsome
Self-assured
Efficient
Gloomy
Open
Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Unpleasant
Unfriendly
Accepting
Frustrating
Enthusiastic
Relaxed
Close
Warm
Uncooperative
Hostile
Interesting
Harmonious
Hesitant
Inefficient
Cheerful
Guarded

Findings of the Fiedler Model

High

Task-Oriented

Performance

People-Oriented

Low
Favorable
Category
Leader-Member
Relations
Task Structure
Position Power

Moderate

Unfavorable

II

III

IV

VI

VII

VIII

Good

Good

Good

Good

Poor

Poor

Poor

Poor

High
Strong

High
Weak

Low
Strong

High
Weak

High
Strong

High
Weak

Low
Strong

Low
Weak

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

Your LPC Score

Complete the LPC instrument contained in the

word document LPC Scale.doc.

Subjectively assess your own work environment

in relationship to the three situational factors
contained in Fiedlers model

Leader-member relations

Task structure

Positional power

How would you describe your LPC style in

relation to your work environment?

What, if anything might you change about your

work environment to make it more conducive to
your style?

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

The Path-Goal Theory

Environmental
Situational Factors

Leader
Behavior

Outcomes

Subordinate
Situational Factors
Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

Applications: General
Contingency Guidelines

Use more planning for a long,

complex task.
Consult more with people who
have relevant knowledge.
Provide more direction to people
with interdependent roles.
Provide more direction and
briefings when there is a crisis.

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

Applications: General
Contingency Guidelines

Monitor a critical task or unreliable

person more closely.
Provide more coaching to an
inexperienced subordinate.
Be more supportive to someone
with a very stressful task.

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

Charismatic Leadership

Charisma divinely inspired gift

a form of influence based not on

tradition or formal authority but
rather on follower perceptions that
the leader is endowed with
exceptional qualities

Charisma is the result of follower

perceptions and attributions
influenced by actual leader traits

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Attribution Perspectives on
Charisma (Conger and Kanungo)

Followers see someone as

charismatic when leader:

Articulates a vision outside the norm,

but acceptable
Acts in unconventional ways
Takes personal risks
Appears confident
Uses persuasive appeal rather than
formal authority or participative
decision-making

Also helps when followers are

disenchanted with the status quo

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Self-Concept Perspectives on
Charisma
Charismatics influence followers by
appealing to four internal processes:

Personal identification - followers desire to

emulate personal characteristics of leader
Social identification - promotes being part
of something bigger than oneself
Internalization - conveys objectives in
broad ideological terms, becomes a way
for followers to express themselves.
Self-efficacy - conveys high performance
standards and belief in followers ability to
meet them nurturing a persons selfefficacy and esteem.

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Charismatic Leadership
Emergence

An organizations mission can be

linked to follower values and
identities
Work is relatively unstructured and
hard to measure clearly (more
intrinsic appeal)
A crisis situation
Followers have weak self-concepts
and or low self-esteem
Followers have high need for
dependence on authority figures

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Consequences of Negative
Charismatic Leadership

Poor interpersonal relationships using power to manipulate and exploit

Unconventional behaviors alienates
some, appeals to others
Impression management - too much
can lead to distortions of the truth
Poor administrative practices -too
much big picture, not enough detail
Over confidence - illusions of
invulnerability will lead to failure
Failure to plan for succession

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Transformational/Transactional
Behaviors (Bass 1996)
Transformational

Transactional

Idealized influence
attributed
Idealized influence
behavioral
Individualized
consideration
Inspirational
motivation
Intellectual
stimulation

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Contingent reward
Active management
by exception
Passive management
by exception
Laissez-fair leadership

Transformational vs.
Charismatic Leadership

Bass (1985) argues that charisma

is a necessary but not sufficient
ingredient for transformational
leadership (others assert it is not
necessary)

e.g. people may identify with a

charismatic celebrity, even imitate
him/her but seldom become motivated
to transcend self-interest

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Transformational vs.
Charismatic Leadership

Both arouse strong emotions and

identification; transformational
leaders empower and elevate
followers; charismatics sustain
dependence
Transformational leaders can be
found at any organization level.
Charismatics emerge during states
of stress
Charismatic leaders are likely to be
polarizing

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Research on Transformational
Leadership

Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire

(MLQ) has shown:

Transformational leaders are associated

with organizational success; correlation is
stronger when performance criteria is
subordinate self-rated effort vs. objective
measures like organizational performance
Transformational behaviors correlate with
success more than transactional
behaviors

Managers trained in transformational

approaches more effective than those
who were not.

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Descriptive Research on
Transformational Leadership

Bennis and Nanus (1985) - 5-year

study of 60 top level corporate
leaders and 30 leaders of public
organizations
Some common themes about the
nature of effective
transformational leadership

Developing a vision
Developing commitment and trust
Facilitating organizational learning

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Project Vision

Cognitive perspective

A project vision is a motivation tool

Serves as meta-goal
Its effect can be explained by selfregulatory theories of motivation;

Serves as the standard against which to

evaluate behavior and actions

Control theory
Goal setting

Participation and input make a difference

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Behavioral Implications of a
Vision

Selecting team members

Strategic planning
Diligent communication
Tasks and role clarification
Feedback and behavioral
comparison relative to the vision

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Vision and Project

Management

Visions should be future oriented

Leadership ability matters
Vision should be clear and engaging
Communicate Vision publicly
Visions are cognitive communication
bring them to life
Seek/offer feedback about the Vision

Determine what errors are occurring

relative to Vision
Adjust Vision based upon learnings

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Developing a Vision
Individual differences
Positive attitude

Creativity

Future
orientation

Approaches and Techniques

Targeted Vision
Approach

Strategic Planning
Realism versus
Idealism

Mapping components
Wouldnt it be great
scenarios..
Writing the script

Creativity Approach
Convergent versus
Divergent
Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Targeted Vision: Mapping

Workers comp

Zoning codes

Legal

Wages

State Requirements

Labor

Performance
Union contract

Bid & Contract Specifications

WATER TREATMENT FACILITY

Subcontractor

Inspectors

Inspections
OSHA

Project Deadline

Safety
Procedures
Gear

Materials delivery
Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Source: Pinto et. al (1998) pp.6366

Targeted Vision:
Wouldnt it be great if
we had a complete list of regulatory
requirements, with indication of
regulatory agency and a contact person
all overtime costs could be eliminated
there were no accidents
subcontractors completed their work on
time
had software to help us track regulatory
requirements as the project proceeds
there were no work stoppages
Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Source: Pinto et. al (1998) pp.6366

Targeted Vision: The Script

I arrive at the site at 8AM to find

work underway. The site is clean and
organized. Subcontractors are
approaching the end of their work
and have met all requirements so far.
All equipment is working properly.
People are working steadily and
there have been no major accidents
or injuries. There are no fires to be
put out, an all my energy goes
planning and solving a few minor
problems with the steel beams

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Source: Pinto et. al (1998) pp.6366

Transformational Project
Leadership

Learn about the people and the

work
Act for the concern of both
Encourage functional
accountability
Develop vision of the completed
project
Communicate that vision
Model behaviors that drive the
vision

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Transformational Project
Leadership

Serve as central figure in team

development
Embrace constructive conflict
Make ethics central to team
thinking
Reflect on the project
Develop trick of thinking
backwards

Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Guidelines for Becoming a

Transformational Leader
Suggestion

Explanation

Develop a vision that is both

clear and highly appealing to
followers

A clear vision will guide followers toward achieving

organizational goals and make them feel good
about doing so.

Articulate a strategy for

bringing that vision to life.

Don't present an elaborate plan; rather stay the

best path towards achieving the mission.

State your vision clearly and

promoted to others.

Visions must not only be clear, but make

compelling, such as by using anecdotes.

Show confidence and

optimism about your vision.

It's a leader lacks confidence about success,

followers will not try very hard to achieve that
vision.

Express confidence in
Followers must believe that they are capable of
followers capacity to carry out implementing a leader's vision. Leaders should
the strategy.
build followers self-confidence.
Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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Guidelines for Becoming a

Transformational Leader
Suggestion
Explanation
Build confidence by recognizing
If the group experiences early successes, it will
small accomplishments toward
be motivated to continue working hard.
the goal.
Formal or informal ceremonies are useful for
Celebrate successes and
celebrating success, thereby building optimism
accomplishments.
and commitment.
Visions are reinforced by things leaders due to
Take dramatic action to
symbolize them. For example, one leader
symbolize key organizational
demonstrated concern for quality by the shoring
values.
work that was not up to standards.
Leaders serve as role models, if they want
Senate example; actions speak
followers to make sacrifices, for example, they
letter and words.
should do so themselves.
Peter Dominick, Zvi Aronson 2009

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