Ecology (BIO C322)

Population Ecology (contd)

Metapopulation dynamics
Metapopulation is a level between the organism and the
population levels of organization
Defined as subpopulations occupying discrete patches or
islands of suitable habitat that are separated by unsuitable
habitat but connected by dispersal corridors.
Groups of individuals in each discrete patch may go extinct
at some point in time but patch may be re-colonized by
individuals from nearby patch.
If colonization and extinction balance over a large area of
landscape, The total population size may remain about the
same.
The survival of the species may depend more on dispersal
than on births and deaths within the patch.

Energy for Maintenance & Growth

R Maintenance energy to be spent in order
to survive.(respiration)
PN Growth [in biomass or] in numbers
(Population growth).
PN Net energy required for reproduction
PN Energy devoted to reproductive
structures, mating activities, offspring
production & parental care.

Costs vs Benefits
Costs: Loss of time/energy; cost of
maintenance.
Benefits: Energy obtained from food.
Increasing energy available for reproduction
accomplished by optimal foraging:defined as
max possible energy return under a given set of
foraging and habitat conditions.
Selecting larger/more nutritious/easy-to-catch prey,
or;

- By reducing search/pursuit time & effort.

r-selection
Uncrowded/uncertain environments (subject to
periodic stresses like storms/droughts)
Selection favours species with high
reproductive potential.
r-selected species.
High ratio of reproductive to maintenance effort.
J-shaped population growth pattern.

K-selection
Crowded environments/low probability of
severe disturbances.
Greater energy investment in maintenance
& survival.
K-selected species.
Energy in favour of enhanced competitive ability;
Logistic growth pattern.

Practice Concept
Allocation of energy among the various activities of an
organism reflects balances b/w advantages & costs.
First consideration is survival & maintenance of
individual (respiratory component),
with additional energy allocated to growth &
reproduction (production component).
Large organisms, like large cities, must allocate a larger
portion of their metabolized energy input to
maintenance,
than small organisms, which do not have so much
structure to maintain.

Allocations of Net Energy

Energy expended:

- To cope with competition for common

resources;
- To avoid being eaten by predator;
- To produce offspring.

Figure 6.28 (TB) in tabular form

(C=competition; P=predation)
S.
No.

Situation

Percentage energy for:

Offspring

Competition

Predator
Avoidance

1.

Low C, low P

75

15

10

2.

High C

10

75

15

3.

High P

10

15

75

4.

Equal
selection
pressures

30

40

30

Species 1 r-selected
Species 2, 3, 4 K-selected

Table 6.3 (TB) Attributes of r- & K-selection

S. No.

Attribute

r-selection

K-selection

1.

Climate

Unpredictable

Predictable

2.

Population size

Variable in time

Constant in time

3.

Competition

Lax

Keen

4.

Selection favours

Rapid development
Early reproduction
Small body size
Many offspring

Slow development
Delayed reproduction
Large body size
Few offspring

5.

Length of life

Short (<1 year)

Long (>1 year)

6.

Stage in
succession

Early

Late (climax)

7.

Leads to

Productivity

Efficiency

Table 6.4 (TB):

Allocation of assimilated energy b/w production
(growth + reproduction) & respiration (maintenance)
Trophic level

PN

Primary consumer
Cotton rat (herbivore)

13

87

Secondary consumers
Marsh wren (insectivore)
Red fox (carnivore)
Raccoon (omnivore)

1
4
4

99
96
96

Poikilothermic Arthropods
Pea aphid (herbivore)
Wolf spider (predator)

58
25

42
75

Selection of Prey Size

 Low food (prey) abundance Prey of all

sizes eaten Generalist feeders.
High food abundance Small-sized prey
ignored by predators, large-sized ones
eaten Specialist feeders.

Read this
MacArthur (1978) noted that K-selection
prevails in the relatively non-seasonal
Tropics,
whereas r-selection in seasonal
environments of the North Temperate Zone,
where population growth is marked by
exponential growth,
followed by catastrophic declines during the
winter months.

An example
Ragweed (Ambrosia) grows in old fields &
recently disturbed places Produced 50 times
more seeds;
Allocation of greater %
of assimilated energy
to reproduction.
[Comparison with Dentaria laciniata, a
herbaceous plant in relatively stable forest floor.]

Goldenrods of genus Solidago

Six populations selected for study.

 Population 1 in dry, open fields & disturbed

sites Low leaf biomass, more of PN
allocated to reproductive tissues rselected.
Population 6 in moist hardwood forests
More energy allocated to leaf production,
less allocated to reproduction
K-selected.

Patterns of Dispersion

 Random: When environment is uniform,

no tendency to aggregate.
Regular or Uniform: Severe competition,
promotes even spacing.
Clumped or Grouped: Random or uniform.

Allee Principle of Aggregation

Why individuals aggregate?
Habitat;
Climate;
Reproduction;
Social behaviour.

Increased survival of the group in face of

danger; finding resources; modification of
microclimate.

 Limiting effects of undercrowding Less chance of

finding mate; less probability of pollination with
increasing space.
Limiting effect of overcrowding Competition, pollution.
Allee principle of aggregation.
[Another cause of extinction of small populations:
Reduced genetic diversity.]

Practice Concept
Biological control of pests is one of the few research
areas in which the Allee effect has been recognized.
According to Allee effect, at low population
densities, individuals may not be able to secure a
mate, reducing average birth rates, resulting in
population decline.
By releasing sterile male flies (pests) into the
natural population, it is possible to reduce the
probability of a female encountering a fertile male.
This is like artificially creating an Allee effect.

Group Survival Value

Beehive Enough heat generated to
enable survival in cold temperatures.

 Bobwhite quail Group (covey) rest in a

circle, head facing outwards Defence
strategy.

 Home range: The area in which an animal

or a group is active for its daily needs.
- It varies with body size.

 Refuge or Territory: Defended part of

home range; avoidance of predation;
reproductive isolation.

 Well-defined behaviour patterns in the

territory.
Song & call (birds): Loud singing (males) after
territory establishment to attract females.
Individuals unable to establish territories fail to
breed.

Flashing fangs (mammals).