CHEMISTRY PROJECT

MADE BY
XYZ

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my greatest
gratitude to the people who have
helped & supported me throughout
my project. I am grateful to my
teacher

Mrs.Anushka

Sharmafor her continuous support

for the project, from initial advice &
contacts in the early stages of
conceptual inception & through
ongoing advice & encouragement to
this day. A special thank of mine
goes to my colleague who helped
me in completing the project & she

ORBITAL
HYBRIDIZATION

ATOMIC ORBITALS & COVALENT

BONDING
ATOMIC ORBITALS ARE MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTIONS

OF THE probable

locations of electrons around

an atom.

s, px, py, pz, dxy, dxz, dyz, dx2-y2, dz2, ...

Atomic orbitals can be blended together
to form new orbitals called hybrid orbitals.
03/17/15

SP ORBITAL HYBRIDIZATION
Be

Be
Be

Be

The shape is determined

by the linear combinations
of atomic orbitals

2s + 2pz

and

Be

2s - 2pz
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SP2 ORBITAL HYBRIDIZATION

The 2s, 2px and 2pz atomic orbitals
of each carbon are used.

C
2s

+ C +

2px

2pz

=
sp2

The angle between the orbitals is 120.

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SP3 ORBITAL HYBRIDIZATION

x
+
2s

2px

y
z

+
2pz

2py

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SP3 ORBITAL HYBRIDIZATION

The angle between the orbitals is 109.5.
Why isnt the angle 90?

four sp3 orbitals

tetrahedral shape
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Groups
of
Hybridization
Electrons

Ideal
Bond
Angle

sp

180

sp2

120

sp3

109.5

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Predict the bond angles and the hybridization

of the central atoms
in each of the following structures.
sp Be
3
sp
N
H

H Be H

H
H C C N
sp3 C H sp C

sp2 C

C O

O
H O N sp2 N

sp3 O

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BERYLLIUM SP HYBRIDIZATION
Be
Be
Be

and

Be

Two orbitals
each can hold two electrons

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SP HYBRIDIZATION
2p
energy

px, py
sp

2s
ao
atomic
orbtials

hao

Be
Maximum angle that
two orbitals can be
apart is 180.

hybrid atomic
orbtials

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SP HYBRIDIZED BERYLLIUM

VALENCE ORBITALS
The other p-orbitals
of beryllium (px, py)
x
remain unchanged
y
Be

Open orbital contains no electrons

Lined orbital contains one electron
Filled in orbital contains two electrons
03/17/15

SP HYBRIDIZED BERYLLIUM

VALENCE ORBITALS
The other p-orbitals
Why is it a linear molecule?
of beryllium (px, py)
remain unchanged
H

Be

Open orbital contains no electrons

Lined orbital contains one electron
Filled in orbital contains two electrons

two sigma
bonds
H
Be
H

03/17/15

Sketch the hybrid atomic orbitals and fill or

shade-in the lobes for each indicated atom

H
H C C N sp N
sp3 C H sp C

sp2 C

C O sp2 O

O
H O N sp2 N

sp3 O

sp3 N

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Sketch the hybrid atomic orbitals and fill or

shade-in the lobes for each indicated atom

sp3 O

sp2 C

sp3 N

sp2 N

sp3 C

sp C

sp2 O

sp N

03/17/15

ETHENE

H
H
C C
H
H

ALSO CALLED ETHYLENE

POLYMERIZES TO FORM POLYETHYLENE
EACH CARBON FORMS THREE SP2 HYBRID
ORBITALS.
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2py

SP2 HYBRIDIZATION

energy

sp2
2s
ao

hao

The unhybridized py orbital is

perpendicular to the sp2 orbitals.

This hybrid set

can hold six electrons.

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ETHENE
Top down view
(xz plane)

Edge on view

TO ALLOW FOR OVERLAP OF THE UNHYBRIDIZED

PY ORBITALS, THE BONDING IN THIS MOLECULE
REQUIRES THAT ETHENE IS PLANAR. ALL SIX
ATOMS LIE IN THE SAME PLANE.
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ETHENE

carbon-carbon sigma bond

due to sp2-sp2 overlap

H
H
carbon-carbon pi bond
due to 2py- 2py overlap

H
C

carbon-hydrogen
sigma bonds
due to sp2-s overlap
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METHANE

H
H C H
H

The 2s, 2px , 2py and 2pz atomic orbitals

of carbon are used.
What would be the name of a hybrid orbital
made from these orbitals?
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sp3

energy

2p

SP3 HYBRIDIZATION
All four hybrid
atomic orbitals
have the same
energy.

2s
carbon
ao

hao
These four orbitals are
energetically degenerate.
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METHANE
H

carbon-hydrogen
sigma bonds
due to sp3-s overlap

H C
H
H

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AMMONIA

H N H
H
The 2s, 2px , 2py and 2pz atomic orbitals of nitrogen
are used

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sp3

energy

2p

SP3 HYBRIDIZATION

2s
nitrogen
ao

hao

By hybridizing its
atomic orbitals
nitrogen gains
more stable
(lower energy)
orbitals for bonding.

Which of the electrons in these

hybrid atomic orbitals are available for bonding?
03/17/15

AMMONIA

Because of this bonding,

the H-N-H bond angle
is close to 109.5 (actually 107).

a completely filled in
orbital contains
two electrons

nitrogen-hydrogen
sigma bonds
due to sp3-s overlap

H N
H
H

03/17/15

HYDROGEN
CYANIDE

H C N

hydrogen
1s orbital

carbon
sp hybridized

nitrogen
sp hybridized

How many electrons How many electrons

are in each orbital? are in each orbital?
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HYDROGEN
CYANIDE

H C N

sigma bonds

px orbital
overlap
py orbital
overlap

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H C N

HYDROGEN CYANIDE

sigma bonds

(between hydrogen and carbon

and carbon and nitrogen)

2 pi bonds

(between carbon
and nitrogen)
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NITRITE ION

Why is the bond angle

approximately 120? O N O

N

O
O

3 groups of electrons
around nitrogen
sp2 hybridization
O-N-O @ 120

Draw the hybridized

atomic orbitals
O1 sp2 hybridized
for each atom
O2 sp3 hybridized

03/17/15

N

O
O

NITRITE ION

-1 charge

1s2 2s2 2p4

_ ___ _
1s sp2 p

1s2 2s2 2p3

1s2 2s2 2p4

_ ___ _
1s sp2 p

_ ____
1s
sp3

NITRITE ION
O N O

N

O
O

3 groups of electrons
around nitrogen
sp2 hybridization
O-N-O @ 120

How would the bonding change

if O2 was unhybridized?

03/17/15

ETHENE
H H
C C
H H

H
H
C C
H
H

3 groups of electrons
around carbon
sp2 hybridization
C-C-H @ 120
H-C-H @ 120
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ETHANE
H H
H C C H
H H

H H
H C C H
H H

4 groups of electrons
around carbon
sp3 hybridization
C-C-H @ 109.5
H-C-H @ 109.5
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DIPOLE MOMENTS
CHARGE IS NOT ALWAYS EQUALLY
DISTRIBUTED IN A MOLECULE.

There can be a region of positive charge and

of negative charge.
The vector connecting these regions is called
the dipole moment.

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PREDICTIONS
FOR MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
SOLUBILITY AND MISCIBILITY ARE RELATED TO THE POLARITY (I.E.,
DIPOLE MOMENT) OF THE MOLECULE.

"Like dissolves like" is a rule of thumb for solubility

polar molecules dissolve in polar solvents
nonpolar molecules dissolve in nonpolar solvents

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CARBONATE ION

The concept of dipole moments

can also be applied to ions,
although they generally
dissolve in polar solvents
(e.g., water) because
of their charge.

O 2C
O

Although carbonate ion

has no net dipole moment,
it dissolves in polar solvents
because of its ionic charge.
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LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE

THE RULE "LIKE DISSOLVES LIKE" IS NOT
PERFECT;
HOWEVER, IT DOES SERVE AS A STARTING
POINT IN DETERMINING WHAT TYPE OF
SOLVENT TO USE WHEN ATTEMPTING TO
DISSOLVE A SOLID.
03/17/15

POLARITY PREDICTIONS
RANK THE FOLLOWING MOLECULES IN TERMS
OF POLARITY:

WATER, BENZENE, CHLOROFORM

Cl

C
Cl

Cl

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