Inductors

A coil of wire can create a magnetic field if a

current is run through it. If that current
changes (as in the AC case), the magnetic field
created by the coil will change. Will this
changing magnetic field through the coil cause
a voltage to be created across the coil? YES!
This is called self-inductance and is the basis
behind the circuit element called the inductor.

Inductors
Since the voltage created depends in this case
on the changing magnetic field, and the
field depends on the changing current, we
have: Vinductor = -L dI /dt
where the L (called the inductance) depends
on the shape and material (just like
capacitance and resistance).

Inductors
Vinductor = -L dI /dt
Here the minus sign means that when the
current is increasing, the voltage across the
inductor will tend to oppose the increase,
and it also means when the current is
decreasing, the voltage across the inductor
will tend to oppose the decrease.

Units: Henry
From

Vinductor = -L dI /dt

L has units of Volt / [Amp/sec] which is

called a Henry:
1 Henry = Volt-sec / Amp .
This is the same unit we had for mutual
inductance before (recall the transformer).

Solenoid type inductor

For a capacitor, we started with a parallel
plate configuration since the parallel plates
provided a uniform electric field between
the plates.
In the same way, we will start with a device
that provides a uniform magnetic field
inside the device: a solenoid.

Solenoid inductor
Bsolenoid = nI where n = N/Length .
Recall Faradays Law: V = d/dt [ BdA ] .
Since the I in the B is a constant with respect to the variable of
integration (dA), we have:
V = L dI/dt where L = (n) dA , and since B is uniform
over the area for the solenoid (and in the same direction as
area):
L = (n)A. But the area is for each of N loops, so: L =
N2A/Length where Aeach loop = R2.
L = N2R2 / Length .

Size of a Henry
From the inductance of a solenoid:
L = N2R2 / Length
we see that with vacuum inside the solenoid, becomes o
which has a value of 4 x 10-7 T-m/A, a rather small
number. R will normally be less than a meter, and so R2
will also make L small.
However, N can be large, and can be a lot larger than o
if we use a magnetic material.

Altogether, a henry is a rather large inductance.

Inductors
Lsolenoid = N2R2 / Length .
As we indicated before, the value of the
inductance depends only on the shape (R,
Length, N) and materials ().
The inductance relates the voltage across it to
the changing current through it:
V = - L dI/dt . We again use Lenzs Law to
give us the direction (sign) of the voltage.

Energy Stored in an Inductor

We start from the definition of voltage: V =
PE/q (or PE = qV). But since the voltage
across an inductor is related to the current
change, we might express q in terms of I:
I = dq/dt, or dq = I dt. Therefore, we have:
Estored = qi Vi = V dq = V I dt and now we
use VL = L dI/dt to get:
Estored = (L dI/dt) I dt = L I dI = (1/2)LI2.

Review of Energy in Circuits

There is energy stored in a capacitor (that has
Electric Field): Estored = (1/2)CV2 .
Recall the V is related to E.
There is energy stored in an inductor (that has
Magnetic Field): Estored = (1/2)LI2 .
Recall the I is related to B.
There is power dissipated (as heat) in a resistor:
Elost = RI2 .

Review of Circuit Elements

Resistor: VR = R I where I = q/t
Capacitor: VC = (1/C)q

(from C = q/V)

Inductor: VL = -L I/t
We can make an analogy with mechanics:
q is like x; t is like t,
I = q/t is like v = x/t; I/t is like a = v/t

V is like F; C is like 1/k (spring);

R is like air resistance, L is like m.

RL Circuit
What happens when we have a resistor in series with an
inductor in a circuit?
From the mechanical analogy, this should be like having
a mass with air resistance. If we have a constant force
(like gravity), the object will accelerate up to a terminal
speed (due to force of air resistance increasing up to the
point where it balances the gravity).
F=ma bv mg = ma, or
m dv/dt + bv = -mg

Mechanical Analogy: mass

falling with air resistance
f a l lin g

w ith

a ir re s i s ta n c e

20 0

15 0
10 0
5 0

ti m e

in

se c o n d s

6 4 .0

5 6 .0

4 8 .0

4 0 .0

3 2 .0

2 4 .0

1 6 .0

8 .0

sp e e d

in

m /s

M a s s

RL Circuit (cont.)
If we connect the resistor and the inductor to a
battery and then turn the switch on, from
the mechanical analogy we would expect
the current (which is like velocity) to begin
to increase until it reaches a constant
amount.

LR Circuit - qualitative look

From the circuit point of view, initially we have zero
current so there is no VR (voltage drop across the
resistor). Thus the full voltage of the battery is trying
to change the current, hence VL = Vbattery, and so
dI/dt = Vbattery /L.
However, as the current increases, there is more
voltage drop across the resistor, VR, which reduces
the voltage across the inductor (VL = Vbattery - VR),
and hence reduces the rate of change of the current!

RL Circuit:
Differential Equation
To see this behavior quantitatively, we need to
get an equation.
We can get a differential equation by using the
Conservation of Energy (Vi = 0):
Vbattery - Vresistor - Vinductor = 0.
[This looks like an ordinary algebraic equation.
But all the Vs are not constants: we have
relations for Vresistor and Vinductor.]

RL Circuit:
Differential Equation
Vbattery - Vresistor - Vinductor = 0.
With Vbattery = constant, Vresistor = IR, and
Vinductor = L dI/dt, we have the differential
equation (for I(t)):
Vbattery - IR - L dI/dt = 0. This can be rewritten as:
IR + L dI/dt = Vbattery
which is an inhomogeneous first order differential
equation, just like we had for the mechanical analogy:
m dv/dt + bv = -mg .

RL Circuit (cont.)
IR + L dI/dt = Vbattery
The homogeneous equation is: LdI/dt + RI = 0.

This has a dying exponential solution:

IH(t) = Io e-(R/L) t .
The inhomogeneous equation is:
L dI/dt + RI = Vbattery .
This has the simple solution: II(t) = Vbattery / R.

RL Circuit (cont.)
I(t) = IH(t) + II(t) = Io e-(R/L) t + Vbattery / R .
To find the complete solution (that is, find I o ,
we apply the initial conditions:
I(t=0) = 0 = Io + Vbattery/R so Io = -Vbattery/R .
Therefore, we have:
I(t) = [Vbattery/R]*[1 - e-(R/L) t ] .

RL Circuit
I(t) = [Vbattery/R]*[1 - e-(R/L) t ] .
As time goes on, the current does increase and
finally reaches the value Vbattery /R which is
what it would be without the inductor present.
The graph on the next slide shows this function
when Vbattery = 24 volts; R = 24 , and L = 1
H. Note that the max current is 1 Amp, and
the time scale is in milliseconds.

RL Circuit: I(t) versus t

I( t ) v s t

f o r R L C ir c u it

1 .2

0 .8
0 .6
0 .4
0 .2

t in m illis e c o n d s

46

41

36

31

26

21

16

11

0
1

I in a m p s

Mechanical Analogy: mass

falling with air resistance
f a l lin g

w ith

a ir re s i s ta n c e

20 0

15 0
10 0
5 0

ti m e

in

se c o n d s

6 4 .0

5 6 .0

4 8 .0

4 0 .0

3 2 .0

2 4 .0

1 6 .0

8 .0

sp e e d

in

m /s

M a s s

RL Circuit
Note that this graph of I(t) versus t looks
qualitatively just like v(t) versus t for the
mass falling under constant gravity with air
resistance. According to the analogy, the
inductance acts like the mass, and the
resistance acts like the coefficient for air
resistance.

R, L and C in a circuit
We have already considered an RC circuit (in
Part 2) and an RL circuit (just now). We
looked at these cases for a circuit in which
we had a battery and then threw the switch.
However, the main reason these circuit
elements are important is in AC circuits. We
look next at the case of the three elements in
a series circuit with an AC voltage applied.

LRC Circuit: Oscillations

Newtons Second Law: F = ma can be written
as: F - ma = 0 . With a spring and resistance,
this becomes: -kx -bv -ma = 0
This is like the equation we get from
Conservation of Energy when we have a
capacitor, resistor and inductor: V = 0 , or
(1/C)Q + RI + L dI/dt = 0 ,
where VC = (1/C)Q,
VR = RI,
and
VL = L dI/dt.

Resonance
If we put an inductor and a capacitor with an AC
voltage, we have the analogy with a mass connected
to a spring that has an oscillating applied force.

In both of these cases (mechanical and

electrical), we get resonance.
Well demonstrate this in class with a mass and spring.
This, it turns out, is the basis of tuning a radio!

LRC Circuit:
Differential Equation
Starting with Conservation of Energy
(Vi = 0) and using VR = IR, VC = Q/C,
VL = LdI/dt , and applying a sine wave voltage (AC
voltage), we get:
(1/C)Q + RI + LdI/dt = Vosin(t)
Putting this in terms of Q (I = dQ/dt):
(1/C)Q + RdQ/dt + Ld2Q/dt2 = Vosin(t)
we have a second order linear inhomo-geneous differential
equation for Q(t).

LRC Circuit:
Differential Equation
(1/C)Q + RdQ/dt + Ld2Q/dt2 = Vosin(t)
We again look at the homogeneous solution
(that is, without the applied voltage), and
then try to find an inhomogeneous solution.
If the resistance is small, the homogeneous
equation becomes fairly simple
(1/C)Q + Ld2Q/dt2 = 0 and has the solution:
Q(t) = Qosin( ot) .

LC Circuit
When we substitute this expression
Q(t) = Qosin( ot)
into the diff. Eq.,
(1/C)Q + Ld2Q/dt2 = 0
we find the natural frequency: o = [1/LC]
And just like the case of the mass on the spring
(mechanical analogy), when the applied frequency
approaches the natural frequency, the amplitude of
the resulting oscillation gets very large (it resonates).

LRC Circuit
By placing a resistor in the circuit, the
differential equation becomes a little harder.
We need to consider either both sines and
cosines, or we need to consider exponentials
with imaginary numbers in the exponent.
This can be done, and reasonable solutions
can be found, but we will not pursue that
here. We will pursue an alternative way.

LRC Circuit:
Impedance
An alternative way of considering the LRC
Circuit is to use the concept of impedance.
The idea of impedance is that all three of the
major circuit elements impede the flow of
current.
A resistor obviously limits the current in a
circuit. But a capacitor and an inductor also
limit the current in an AC circuit.

LRC Circuit
The basic idea we will pursue is that in a
series circuit,
a) the same current flows through all of the
elements: I = Io sin(t) ; and
b) the voltages at any instant add up to zero
around the circuit:
VR(t) + VC(t) + VL(t) = VAC(t) .

Resistance
Because of Ohms law (VR = IR), we see that
the current and the voltage due to the
current are in phase (that is, when the
oscillating voltage is at a maximum, the
oscillating current is also at a maximum.
VR = Vro sin(t)
I = Io sin(t)
Vro = IoR

Capacitive Reactance
For a capacitor: VC = (1/C)Q, and with
I = dQ/dt, or Q = I dt, if I = Iosin(t), then
Q = (-Io/) cos(t), so VC = -(1/C)Iocos(t).

Note that cosine is 90o different than sine - we say it

is 90o out of phase. This means that VC is 90o out
of phase with the current!
Note that the constant (1/C) acts just like R. We call
this the capacitive reactance,
XC = (1/C) .

Voltage across the capacitor

VC = -VCo cos(t)
I = Io sin(t)
VCo = IoXC where XC = 1/C

Inductive Reactance
For an inductor, VL = L dI/dt, if I = Iosin(t),
then dI/dt = Io cos(t). Note that cosine is
90o different than sine - we say it is 90 o out of
phase. This means that VL is 90o out of phase
with the current.
Since VL = L dI/dt, VL = LIo cos(t) , and we
see that the constant L acts just like R. We
call this the inductive reactance,
XL = L .

Voltage across the inductor

VL = VLo cos(t)
I = Io sin(t)
VLo = IoXL where XL = L

LRC in series
Note that in a series combination, the current
must be the same in all the elements, while
the voltage adds. However, the voltage
must add to zero across a complete circuit at
every instant of time. But since the
voltages are out of phase with each other,
the amplitudes of the voltages (and hence
the rms voltages) will not add up to zero!

LRC in series
For: I = Io sin(t)
VR = IR = RIo sin(t)
VC = (1/C)*Q = -(1/C) Io cos(t)
VL = L*dI/dt = (L) Io cos(t)
VR + VC + VL = VAC =
Io [R sin(t) (1/C) cos(t) + L cos(t)]
= Io Z sin(t+) = Vo sin(t+)

Impedance
In 2-D space, x and y are 90o apart. We combine the
total space separation by the Pythagorean
Theorem: r = [x2+y2]1/2 .
If we add up the Vs, this is equivalent to adding up
the reactances. But we must take the phases into
account. For the total impedance, Z, we get : Vrms
= Irms Z where
Z = [R2 + (L - 1/C)2]1/2 .
(Note that we had to subtract XL from XC because of the
signs involved.)

Resonance
Vrms = IrmsZ where Z = [R2 + (L-1/C)2]1/2
Note that when (L - 1/C) = 0, Z is smallest
and so I is biggest! This is the condition for
resonance. Thus when LC]1/2, we have
resonance. This is the same result we would
get using the differential equation route.
Note that this is equivalent to the resonance of a
spring when km]1/2.

V(t) versus Vrms

From Conservation of Energy, Vi = 0. This holds
true at every time. Thus:
VC(t) + VR(t) + VL(t) = Vosin(t+ ) . But due to the
phase differences, VC will be maximum at a different
time than VR, etc.
However, when we deal with rms voltages, we take
into account the phase differences by using the
Pythagorean Theorem. Thus,
VC-rms + VR-rms + VL-rms > VAC-rms .

Net Power Delivered

What about energy delivered?
For a resistor, electrical energy is changed into heat, so the
resistor will remove power from the circuit.

For an inductor and a capacitor, the energy is

merely stored for use later. Hence, the average
power used is zero for both of these. Note that
Power = I*V, but I and V are out of phase by 90 o
for both the inductor and capacitor, so on average
there is zero power delivered.

Net Power Delivered

Thus, even though we have V=IZ as a
generalized Ohms Law, power is still:
Pavg = I2R
(not P=I2Z).

Computer Homework
There is a computer homework program on
Inductance on Vol. 4, #4, that gives you
practice on DC and AC behaviors of
inductors.

Magnetism in Matter
Just as materials affect the electric fields in space,
so do materials affect the magnetic fields in
space.
Recall that we described the effect of materials on
the electric fields with the dielectric constant, K.
This measured the stretchability of the electric
charges in the materials. This stretching due to
applied electric fields caused electric fields itself.

Two main effects

Atoms have electrons that orbit the positive
nuclei. These orbiting electrons act like
little current loops and can create small
magnets.
Effect 1: A diamagnetic effect similar to the
dielectric effect.
Effect 2: An aligning effect.

Diamagnetic Effect
Effect 1: By Lenzs law, when the applied
magnetic field changes, there is a tendency in
the circuit to resist the change. This effect
tends to create a magnetic field opposing the
change. In this effect, the material acts to
reduce any applied external magnetic field.
This is similar to the dielectric effect that leads
to the dielectric constant for electric fields.

Aligning Effect
Effect 2: Since the normal currents due to
the orbiting electrons act like tiny
magnets, these magnets will tend to align
with an external magnetic field. This
tendency to align will tend to add to any
external applied magnetic field.
Heat tends to destroy this ordering tendency.

Net Result
When both of these effects (Lenzs law and aligning)
are combined, we find three different types of
results:
1. Diamagnetic: Magnetic field is slightly reduced in
some materials
2. Paramagnetic: Magnetic field is slightly increased
in some materials
3. Ferromagnetic: Magnetic field is greatly increased
in a few materials

B, M and H
We are already familiar with B. It is called the
magnetic field or the magnetic flux density (from
its use in V = -d/dt [BdA] ). This is the total
field in space.
We have H, called the magnetic field strength or
magnetic intensity. This is the field due to
external currents only.
We have M, called the magnetization. It is the field
due to the material only.

Magnetic Susceptibility and

Magnetic permeability
To give a quantitative measure to the effects
of materials on magnetic fields, and to
relate B, M and H to one another, we define
two additional quantities:
= magnetic permeability: B = H , and
o is the value of in vacuum)
= magnetic susceptibility: M = H .

Further Relations
B = H = o(H + M) = o(H + H)
= o(1+)H

so

= o(1+) .

Diamagnetic materials:
<0,
Paramagnetic materials:
>0,
(in both cases, 10-4 so o )
Ferromagnetic materials:

>0,

at room Temp, only Fe, Ni and Co are ferromagnetic;

depends on how its made and past history [hysteresis];

values can be between 100 and 100,000 !

Hysteresis
is not constant - it depends on history
hard - permanent soft magnet transformer
B B