Review of Related Literature

Alim, Marest
Leano, Bryle Rose
Leyba, Charisse Martha
Perez, Katerina
Rabano, Christine Marie
Developmental
Theories
A basic, quick, and easy review
Cognitive
developmental theories
Piaget’s cognitive development
• Sensorimotor: birth to two years old
• Preoperational: 2-7 yrs old
• Concrete: 7 yrs old to adolescence
• Formal Operations: adolescence to
adulthood
Cognitive
developmental theories
Kohlberg’s stages of Piaget’s stages of moral
moral development development
Pre-conventional • Heteronomous Morality
• Stage 1 : Punishment and (morality of constraint)
obedience – 6-9 yrs old
• Stage 2: Instrumental • Autonomous morality
Relativism (morality of cooperation)
– 12 yrs old
Conventional
• Stage 3: Interpersonal
conformity
• Stage 4: Social System
Orientation
Post-conventional
Psychosocial
developmental theories
Freud Erikson
• Oral (0-1) • Trust vs Mistrust (0-1)
• Anal (2-3) • Autonomy vs Shame and
• Phallic (4-6) doubt (2-3)
• Latent (7-10) • Initiative vs Guilt (4-6)
• Genital (11+) • Industry vs Inferiority (7-12)
• Identity vs Role confusion
(13-19)
• Intimacy vs Isolation (20-34)
• Generativity vs stagnation
(35-65)
• Integrity vs Despair (65
onwards)
Theories on vocational
development
Ginzberg
• Fantasy period during
childhood
• Tentative period
during adolescence
• Realistic Exploration
in later period
• Experimentation
within career during
early adulthood
Development transitions based on
occupations
• ADLs
– Most areas are developed during childhood
and improves throughout the lifespan
• IADLs
– Work behaviors begin during early childhood
– Needed to function independently
Development transitions based on
occupations
• Work
– For children
• School tasks
• Family chores
– For adolescents
• May include job experiences or training
– Early adulthood
• Working as an employee
• Usually exploratory
– Middle adulthood
• At the peak of career
– Late adulthood
• retirement
Development transitions based on
occupations
• Social participation
– Selman’s Stages of friendship
• Stage 0: momentary Playmateship (3-7)
• Stage 1: One-way assistance (4-9)
• Stage 2: 2-way fair weather cooperation (6-12)
• Stage 3: Intimate mutually shared relationships (9-15)
• Stage 4: Autonomous interdependence (beginning age 12)
T heories of
Car eer
Development
John Holland’s Theory of Career Types
Donald Super's Developmental Self-Concept Theory
Eli Ginzberg’s Compromise with Reality Theory
Edgar Schein’s Theory of Career Anchors
John Holland’s T heor y
of Car eer Types
 People prefer jobs where they can be around
others who are like them. They search for
environments that will let them use their skills
and abilities, and express their attitudes and
values, while taking on enjoyable problems
and roles.
 Behaviour is determined by an interaction
between personality and environment.
John Holland’s T heor y
of Car eer Types
Assumptions:
1. In our culture, persons can be
categorized as one of the following:
Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social,
Enterprising or Conventional.
2. There are six modal environments:
realistic, investigative, artistic, social,
enterprising and conventional.
John Holland’s T heor y
of Car eer Types
3. People search for environments that will
let them exercise their skills and
abilities, express their attitudes and
values, and take on agreeable problems
and roles.
4. Behavior is determined by an interaction
between personality and environment.
 John Holland’s T heor y
of Car eer Types
Type
Realistic Strong mechanical, psychomotor, and Structured; clear goals and
athletic abilities; honest; loyal; like the lines of authority; work with
outdoors; prefer working with hands, machines, or tools;
machines, tools, plants, and animals. casual dress; focus on
tangible results;
engineering, military,
skilled trades

Investigative Strong problem solving and analytical Nonstructured; research

skills; mathematically inclined; like to oriented; intellectual;
observe, learn, and evaluate; prefer discover, collect, and
working alone; reserved; idea analyze ideas/data;
generators science, math, medicine,
and computer related;
labs, universities, high
tech, hospitals.
*  From: Real People Real Jobs, by David H. Montross, Zandy B. Leibowitz, and Christopher J. Shinkman
Artistic Creative; complex; emotional; Nonstructured; creative; flexible;
intuitive; idealistic; flair for rewards unconventional and
communicating ideas; prefer aesthetic values; creation of
working independently; like to sing; products and ideas; arts
write, act, paint, think creatively organizations, films/TV,
publishing, advertising,
museums, theater, galleries

Social Friendly; outgoing; find fulfillment inHarmonious; congenial; work on

helping others; strong verbal and people-related problems/issues;
personal skills; teaching abilities; inform train, develop, cure, or
impulsive enlighten others; team oriented;
human resources; training,
education, social service,
hospitality, health care, nonprofit
*  From: Real People Real Jobs, by David H. Montross, Zandy B. Leibowitz, and Christopher J. Shinkman
Enterprising Confident; assertive;
sociable; speaking and
leadership abilities; like to
use influence; strong
interpersonal skills; status
conscious
Conventional Dependable; disciplined;
precise; persistent orderly;
efficient; practical; detail
oriented; clerical and
numerical abilities
*  From: Real People Real Jobs, by David H. Montross, Zandy B. Leibowitz, and Christopher J. Shinkman
True business environment;
results oriented; driven; high-
quality service and product
orientation; entrepreneurial;
high prestige; power focused;
sales, management, politics,
finance, retail, leadership
Orderly; clear rules and policies;
systematized manipulation and
organization of data; control and
handling of money; high income
potential; accounting, business,
finance, administration
Most people’s inter ests combine sever al types to
some de g r ee. T he six types can be ar r anged
ar ound a hexa gon.  Types that ar e next to one
another on the hexa gon ar e most closel y r elated.
Types that ar e opposite one another on the
hexa gon ar e the most dissimilar.
Donald Super’s
developmental self-
concept theor y
 According to Super, self-concept changes
over time and develops as a result of
experience.
 Super developed the concept of vocational
maturity, which may or may not correspond to
chronological age: people cycle through each
of these stages when they go through career
transitions.
Donald Super’s
developmental self-
concept
STAGE AGEtheor y
CHARACTERISTICS
Growth Birth to 14 or 15 Form self-concept, develop capacity,
attitudes, interests, and needs, and form
a general understanding of the world of
work.
Exploratory 15-24 "Try out" through classes, work
experience, hobbies. Collect relevant
information. Tentative choice and
related skill development.
Establishment 25-44 Entry skill building and stabilization
through work experience.
Maintenance 45-64 Continual adjustment process to
improve position.
Decline 65+ Reduced output, prepare for retirement.
Eli Ginzber g’s
Compr omise with
Reality T heor
 emphasize that y
making a vocational
choice is a developmental process that
occurs over a long period of time
As children mature, they gain knowledge
and exposure to alternatives; they learn to
understand themselves and their
environment and are better able to make
rational choices
Eli Ginzber g’s
Compr omise with
Reality T heor
 Career decision y
making occurs in 3
phases:

Fantasy Stage
- occurs until 11 years old; children
imagine and dream of future careers
regardless of needs, ability, training, etc.
Eli Ginzber g’s
Compr omise with
Reality T heor y
Tentative Stage (11-17 years old, 4 substages)
1.Interest period – from 11-12 y/o, children
make choices primarily based on their likes
and interests
2.Capacities period – from 13-14 y/o,
adolescents become more aware of role
requirements, occupational rewards,
Eli Ginzber g’s
Compr omise with
Reality T heor y
3. Value period – 15-16 y/o, adolescents
attempt to relate occupational roles to their
own interests and values,; they consider
both occupation and interest
4. Transition period – 17 y/o, adolescents
make transition from tentative to realistic
choices
Eli Ginzber g’s
Compr omise with
Reality T heor y
Realistic Stage (17 years old onwards)
1.Exploration period – 17-18 y/o, they make
an intensive search for knowledge and
understanding
2.Crystallization period – 19-21 y/o, they
narrowly define a single set of choices and
commit themselves
Eli Ginzber g’s
Compr omise with
Reality T heor y
3. Specification – a general choice is further
narrowed down to a particular choice
Edgar Schein’s T heor y
of Car eer Anchor s
 Career anchors evolve and develop through the
successive new trials and opportunities that one
faces in early work experiences
 Gradually, as one gains more self knowledge and a
clearer occupational identity, a distinct pattern of self
perceived talents, motives, needs and values
emerges
 Edgar Schein’s T heor y
of Car eer Anchor s
Anchor types Description
Technical/Functional The actual content of work is the primary consideration
Competence in their career choices. Their sense of identity is tied to
being able to exercise competencies associated with
that work.
Managerial Competence The ultimate goal is to rise to positions or managerial
responsibility. A functional area job is important not for
the content of work, but for what the position leads to.

Security A key factor is their long term work life stability and
security. A good benefits and retirement package,
employment stability, and clear career paths are
particularly attractive to a person with this anchor.
Opportunities to use certain technical skills or
promotion prospects are important if they lead to long
term stability and security.
Edgar Schein’s T heor y
of Car eer Anchor s
Anchor types Description
Autonomy For them, what is important is having freedom and
avoiding constraints on one’s lifestyle. They are likely
say no to advancement if it means giving up their
independence and freedom.
Creative They may want autonomy or exercise managerial or
technical/functional competence, but they are unique
in their overarching desire to create something that is
entirely of their own making. It might be a product, a
technical process, or a company. Inventing something
new is a measure of worth and the key to their sense
of competence
Factor s Af fecting
Vocational Choice
Rice (1993)
 Parents
 Peers
 Cultural expectations
 Intelligence
 Aptitudes and special abilities
 Interests
 Job opportunities
 Job rewards and satisfactions
 Prestige and Value
 Social class and aspirations
 Race and aspirations
Assumptions for a
compr ehensive car eer
development and tr ansition
education appr oach
1. Career development is needed for all persons
2. A career is a developmental process and is subject
to planning, programming, choices and changes
3. Programming in life-career development and
transition is concerned with age-appropriate
independent living
4. Neglect in any aspect of a human’s growth can
affect career development
5. Society is a barrier to the career development of
PWDs
Assumptions for a
compr ehensive car eer
development and tr ansition
education appr oach
6. A person must possess a variety of life skills in
adaptability to participate in career development
7. Life career development between the disabled and
nondisabled differs in the amount of attention and
type of training required
8. There is also a need for differentiated
programming among the various disability groups
and levels of functioning within each population
Assumptions for a
compr ehensive car eer
development and tr ansition
education appr oach
9. Life career development should begin during
infancy and continue throughout adulthood
10. A realistic philosophy of normalization dictates that
all students have the same educational
opportunities. These philosophies do not dictate,
however, that all students have the same specific
educational experiences.

Reference: Clark, G. M. & Kolstoe, O. P. (1995). Career development and

transition education for adolescents with disabilities (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.
Cultural issues
 Culture DefineD
• An integrated pattern of human
knowledge, belief, and behavior that
depends upon the capacity for symbolic
thought and social learning
• The set of shared attitudes, values,
goals, and practices that characterizes
an institution, organization or group
 Filipino Culture…
Values Traits

Gender roles

Family and Marriage

• The Filipino character is actually a little bit of all the
cultures put together. The bayanihan or spirit of
kinship and camaraderie that Filipinos are famous
for is said to be taken from Malay forefathers. The
close family relations are said to have been
inherited from the Chinese. The piousness comes
from the Spaniards who introduced Christianity in
the 16th century
• Hospitality – main trait that distinguishes
Filipinos from other asian countries
 Filipino Values
• Bayanihan: the creation of
association with neighbors and the
helping atittude whenever one is in
disastrous need..
• Close Family Ties: Filipinos are
well-known for the close family
ties. Many filipinos live near their
family for most of their lives, even
as independent adults.
• Pakikisama: or harmony, in
English, involves getting along with
others to preserve a harmonious
relationship
• Hiya: It is a sense of social decency and
compliant to public norms of behavior.
Filipinos believe they must live up to the
accepted standards of behavior and if they
fail to do so they bring shame not only
upon themselves, but also upon their
family.
• Utang na Loob: owed by one to a
person who has helped him through the
trials he had undergone owed by one to a
person who has helped him through the
trials he had undergone
• o Amor Propio: Concern for self image.
o Delicadeza: Sense of honor
o Palabra de Honor: "word of honor"
• “mano po”- sort of greeting wherein children kiss the
hands of their elders to pay respect
• Sayin po and opo
 Filipino Traits
Valued Traits Undesirable Traits

buo ang loob, makatao, magalang, Madaling makumbinsi, madaling

malambing, mapagdamay, makuntento,mahilig sa
mapagpasakit, tsismis,mapagbalewala,martir,ma
mapagtiis,mapagtiwala,mapagphala Pagpuna, may ningas
ga sa edukasyon, matapat, matatag, kugon,nagtatanim ng
masigla, amrunong makisama, may galit,pikon,tampuhin,sumpungin
pakikibaka,mapagbigay, ,
mapagkumbaba,
mapagpaubaya,mapagsapalaran
Stereotypic Masculine Traits Stereotypic Feminine Traits

Agresibo, hindi Iyakin,maayos,mabini,mahina ang

manloloko,malakas,malakas ang katawan,mahina ang
loob,maskulado,matapang,matipuno loob,mahinhin,mahiyain,malambing,
,may determinasyon,may mapagmahal,maunawain,pa
paninindigan,may prinsipyo Bago-bago ng isip
 M ARRIAGE
• men are expected to marry and if a
man has not married by his late
twenties, female relatives begin
introducing him to potential brides. The
median age for marriage is twenty-two.
Young professionals wait until their late
twenties to marry, and engagements of
five to seven years are not uncommon.
During this period, the couple
becomes established in jobs, pays for
the education of younger siblings, and
acquires household items. A woman
who reaches the age of thirty-two
without marrying is considered past
the age for marriage
 Family
• father - considered the head and the provider of the family

- regarded as strong and the most eminent figure in the

family.
• mother-takes responsibility of the domestic needs and in
charge of the emotional growth and values formation of
the children
-seen as soft and calm
• Children – expected to take care of
their parents
 Gender Roles

• Rural areas: traditional roles prevail

( e.g. men cultivate the land, women
stays at home)
• Urban areas: occupational lines are
blurred since men and women have
equal opportunities to succeed
Legislations supporting the
education, training and employment
of Persons With Disabilities
RA 7277

Magna Carta for Disabled Persons

1991
Pres. Corazon Aquino
Principles

1. PWDs are part of Philippine society

2. PWDs have the same rights as others.
Programs for PWDs should not be seen
as welfare services by the government.
3. Rehabilitation is the concern of the
government.
4. Integration of PWDs should be
facilitated.
Chapter 1: Employment
Title 2 Rights and Privileges of
Disabled Persons
Sec. 5 Equal Opportunity for
Employment
Sec. 6 Sheltered Employment
Sec. 7 Apprenticeship
Sec. 9 Vocational Rehabilitation
Sec. 10 Vocational Guidance and
Counseling
Chapter 2 Education
Sec. 12 Access to Quality Education
Sec. 13 Assistance to Disabled Students
Sec. 14 Special Education
Sec. 15 Vocational/Technical & Other Training
Programs
Sec. 16 Non-Formal Education
Sec. 17 State Universities and Colleges
Title 3: Prohibition on Discrimination Against Disabled
Persons
Chapter 1 Discrimination on Employment
Sec. 32 Discrimination on
Employment
Sec. 33 Employment Entrance
Examination
Psychosocial Conditions
Autism
Let’s Review! 
Typical
Transformations
 Typical Infants…
• Cry to communicate
• Will show emotions, especially distress
due to physical discomfort
• Show social pleasure through smiling
• Are calm to human face and voice
• Are capable of imitating activities
 Typical Infants…
• Play early with social interaction
• Show early preference for
parents/caregivers
• Will protest if caregiver leaves
• Express delight, laughter and joy during
social exchanges
 Typical Children…
• Can talk about their feelings and can discern
feelings of others
• Prefer prosocial playmates
• Are socially competent and cope well with
anger
• Interact with other children of the same sex
• Develop positive relationships with family, and
friends
 Early Adolescence
Between ages eleven and fourteen, typical
adolescents tend to:
• Worry and be conscious about their developing
bodies
• Experience general moodiness due to hormonal
changes
• Assert their independence
• Hang around in gangs (for boys)
• Have one or two important best friends (for girls)
 Middle Adolescence
At ages fifteen to sixteen, typical adolescents tend to:
• Become more secure about their bodies and less self-
conscious
• Start to take risks and push boundaries
• Develop a better capacity to compromise
• Make their own decisions
• Develop deeper, more lasting friendships
• Become more sexually aware, and start dating
 Late Adolescence
At ages seventeen to eighteen, typical
adolescents tend to:
• Feel that they are adults and want to be treated
equally
• Want to leave home, either to get ready for
university or to find a place of their own
• Have formed a stable relationship and have a
serious boyfriend/girlfriend
• Be more involved with friends rather than family
• Be working towards financial independence
 Typical Adults…
• Start jobs or careers
• Get married
• Establish other intimate relationships
• Have and raise children
• Begin to contribute significantly to their
communities
 Psychosocial Disturbances
• The child:
– Exhibits limited/fleeting eye contact
– Is aloof, passive; prefers solitary activities to group activities
– Manifests inappropriate emotional response(s)
– Demonstrates unusual fear(s)
– Is socially immature
– Is maladaptive to changes in food, clothes, routine, routes
or arrangements of things
– Tends to be self-injurious
Now, what’s the problem?
As the child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) develops
from child to teenager to adult, the symptoms of autism may
change over time
(e.g., parallel play as a child may be acceptable, but the
teenager is expected to have more direct social interaction)
Normal stages of life (e.g., puberty) may impact how the
symptoms of autism affect interactions
All of these issues affect the tasks ahead of youngsters with ASDs as they
experience changes and higher expectations during adolescence, including:
• Leisure time/socialization
• Employment
• Friendships and socialization
• Independence
• Educational transition
• Quality of family life
As the young person with ASD ages, the number, effect, or intensity of
behavioral and medical disorders may increase (see Table).
 Developmental and Behavioral Issues to
Monitor in Adolescents with ASD
Developmental Disorders Psychiatric Disorders
Slow development (mental retardation) Anxiety
Language disorders Depression
Learning disorders Obsessive-compulsive disorder
Associated Medical Conditions Behavior Difficulties
Gastrointestinal disorders Sleep disruption
Growth nutritional disorders Self-injurious behavior
Feeding difficulties Hyperactivity, short attention,
distractibility
Seizures Obsessions, perseveration
Growth abnormalities Stereotypies
Early onset puberty Aggression, disruption, tantrums
Genetic disorders Irritability or withdrawal
Transition to Community
Life
A developmental process of meeting and going through maturational expectations enabling the
special person to achieve the most of what he has given his abilities, capabilities and levels of
interest and motivation – so he can lead his life and pursue a career he can be responsible for.
 Requires, in addition to a good
career participation, the following:

• The special person’s aspiration

• The inspiration and support of the family
• The inspiration and support of significant others
• The provision of social and work opportunities by a
community deeply committed to the welfare of the
disabled and the handicapped
• A government that amply provides sustained
structural, manpower, and financial support as
mandated by law.
 Focuses on the following
imperatives:
• The provision of career preparation from school to entry
to exit
• Dynamic home-school partnership
• The provision of sheltered workshops and
apprenticeship programs
• Advocacy for the employment of special persons
• Employment of special persons
• Education of the public about special persons’ abilities,
capabilities and other qualities
• A workable blueprint at the national level on employment
of special persons to be prepared by concerned sectors
 Results in a crisis if the special
person consistently:
• Complains about normal peers who oftentimes pick on him
• Refuses to attend school as he is unable to cope
• Prefers staying at home to going out to malls, parks and other public places
• Lags behind in practically all area of development despite his potential
• Relies on adults to do things for him
• Experiences failure/rejection whenever he attempts learning/doing well in a
competitive job
• Excuses himself from learning/acquiring job skills
• Undervalues his skills and underestimates his looks and other qualities
• Hears of and encounters scarce/inadequate resources for his education/training
• Finds himself in the community which does not care to accept and help him
achieve his potential
Hinges on the special person’s career preparation
covering the following skills areas and the essential
component under each area (Davide, 1996):
 A. Daily Living Skills
• Managing and maintaining a home
• Caring for personal needs
• Buying, preparing, and eating food
• Practicing family safety precautions in the
house
• Practicing safety precautions outside the
home
• Utilizing recreation and leisure
 B. Literacy Skills

• Reading skills
• Writing skills
• Speaking skills
• Mathematical skills
 C. Social Skills

• Achieving self-confidence
• Achieving socially-responsible
behaviors
• Maintaining good interpersonal skills
• Achieving independence
 D. Occupational Skills
• Knowing and exploring occupational possibilities
• Selecting and planning occupational choices
• Exhibiting appropriate work habits and behaviors
• Exhibiting actual work skills
• Seeking, securing, and maintaining employment
Career Education Stages
 Career Education Theme Sample Lesson/Skill
Stages
A. Career Awareness 1. Understanding self  Learning basic
information about self
(Approximately Grades 1- 2. Acquisition of daily
3) living skills  Specific lessons in
eating, dressing,
3. Acquisition of
grooming
academic-related skills
 Writing, reading, simple
4. Physical and
computation
psychomotor training
 Fine and gross-motor
5. Workers in the
training
community
 Simple tasks
 Knowing workers in the
community
 Career Education Theme Sample Lesson/Skill
Stages
B. Career Exploration 1. Understanding the  Why people work, what
world of work workers do
(Approximately Grades 4-
6) 2. Development of values  Sharing, accepting
and attitudes suggestions
3. Increasing  Observing rules,
psychosocial and work- cooperating
related skills
 Reading labels, filling
4. Increasing academic- up forms, money
related skills computation
5. Refining psychomotor  Performing routine
skills chores
 Career Education Theme Sample
Stages Lesson/Skill
C. Career Preparation 1. Work analysis and  Knowing nature of
analysis of work
(Approximately Grades 7-
occupations
10)  Finishing work till
2. Work values, attitudes completion
and habits
 Consulting others
3. Human relationships in
 Accepting suggestions
the workplace
for self-improvement
4. Getting a job
 Readying application
letter, submitting
oneself for interview,
apprenticeship
 Career Education Theme Sample
Stages Lesson/Skill
D. Career Assimilation 1. Job performance  Work efficiency and
productivity
(Post-Secondary Level) 2. Safety matters
 Traveling, protecting
3. Rights and benefits of
oneself from dangers
workers
 Work compensation,
4. Handling finances
protecting oneself from
5. Leisure and human harassment
relationships
 Budgeting and saving
6. Work ethics
 Recreation
 Observing time
schedule for work
 References
American Academy of Pediatrics. (n.d.). Autism: Adolescence and transition to
adulthood. Retrieved December 25, 2009, from http://www.pediatricenter.com/peditric
%20handouts/Autism%20and%20adolescents.pdf

Dizon, E.I., Baldo, T.C., & Camara, E.F. (2000). Teaching Filipino children with autism.
Philippines: DeskPublisher Inc.

Jackson, J. (2004). Multicoloured mayhem: Parenting the many shades of adolescents

and children with Autism, Asperger Syndrome and AD/HD. New York: Jessica Kingsley
Publishers.
 References
• Salonga, D.C.J. (n.d.) OT 140: Development in
infancy and toddlerhood. Manila: UP-CAMP

• Sarmiento, I.C.A. (2008). Preschool years. Manila:

UP-CAMP

• Papalia, D.E., Olds, S.W., Feldman, R.D., & Gross,

D. (2004). Human development. (9th ed.). New
York: McGraw- Hill Companies, Inc.
 REFERENCES
• Johns, G. (1996). Organizational behavior: understanding and
managing life at work (4th ed.). New York: Harper Collins College
Publishers.

• Rice, P. F. (1993). The adolescent: development, relationships and

culture (7th ed.). Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.

• The Holland Hexagon. (n.d.). Retrieved January 01, 2010, from

http://www.uc.edu/career/students/holland.htm

• Career Services (2009, September 02). Donald Super's

Developmental Self-Concept Theory. Retrieved January 01, 2010,
from http://www2.careers.govt.nz/5232.html
 References:
• www.everyculture.com/No-Sa/The-Philippines.html
• www.philippinecountry.com/philippine_culture.html
• Church,A.T.& Katigbak, M.S.(2000). Trait Psychology in the
Philippines.(pp1-39).Manila,Philippines: De La Salle
University Press