CHEMICAL

AND
PHOTO-CHEMICAL
MACHINING

Chemical Machining (CHM)

Chemical Machining (CHM) was developed based on the observation that

chemicals attack metals and etch them by using chemical dissolutions.

Chemical machining (CHM) is the controlled chemical dissolution (CD) of

the work piece material by contact with a strong reagent.

Special coatings called maskants protect areas from which the metal is
not to be removed.

The work piece is either immersed in or exposed to a spray of chemical

reagent.

The process is the oldest of nontraditional machining processes, and has

been used to engrave metals and hard stones and to remove materials
from parts having a high strength-to-weight ratio.
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Steps in CHM

Cleaning
Masking
Scribing
Etching
Demasking

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Principle of CHM

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Contour, Taper and Step Cut by CHM

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Maskants

Maskants are generally used to protect parts of the work

piece where CD action is not needed. Synthetic or rubber
base materials are frequently used. Maskants should,
however, possess the following properties:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Be tough enough to withstand handling

Adhere well to the work piece surface
Scribe easily
Be inert to the chemical reagent used
Be able to withstand the heat generated by etching
Be removed easily and inexpensively after etching

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Types of maskants used in CHM

Cut and Peel masks

Screen resist masks
Photo resist masks

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Etchants

Etchants are acid or alkaline solutions maintained within a

controlled range of chemical composition and temperature.
Their main technical goals are to achieve the following:

Good surface finish

Uniformity of metal removal
Maintenance of personal safety
Maintenance of air quality and avoidance of possible
environmental problems
Low cost per unit weight dissolved
Ability to regenerate the etchant solution and/or readily
neutralize and dispose of its waste products

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Maskant and Etchant Characteristics

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Scribing Templates

Scribing templates are used to define the areas for

exposure to the chemical machining action.
The most common work piece scribing method is to cut the
mask with a sharp knife followed by careful peeling of the
mask from the selected areas.

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Advantages

Simultaneous material removal, from all surfaces, improves

productivity
No burrs are formed
No stress is introduced to the work piece, which minimizes
the part distortion
The capital cost of equipment, used for machining large
components, is relatively low.
The good surface quality in addition to the absence of burrs
eliminates the need for finishing operations
Tooling costs are minor

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Disadvantages

Handling and disposal of chemicals can be troublesome

Difficult to get sharp corner
Difficult to chemically machine thick materials
Scribing accuracy is limited, causing less dimensional
accuracy
Welded areas frequently etch at rates that differ from the
base metal.

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Applications
High Precision Parts
and Decorative Items
Gaskets
Washers
Sensors
Nameplates
Jewelry
Microprocessor Chips

CHM is used to thin out walls, webs, and ribs of parts that
have been produced by forging, casting, or sheet metal
forming
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Photochemical machining (PCM)

Photochemical machining (PCM) is a variation of chemical

machining (CHM) where the chemically resistant mask is
applied to the work piece by photographic techniques.
CHM is usually used on three dimensional parts originally
formed by another manufacturing process, such as forging
and casting of irregular shapes.
Photochemical machining, creates new parts from thin
materials, rather than simply smoothing or altering parts
formed by other manufacturing methods.
Sometimes photochemical machining is used to surface
etch components with lettering or graphics where the
etchant works its way to only a certain depth in the
material.
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Flow Chart for Photochemical machining

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Steps in PCM

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Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

ECM can be thought of a controlled anodic dissolution at atomic level

of the work piece that is electrically conductive by a shaped tool due
to flow of high current at relatively low potential difference through
an electrolyte which is quite often water based neutral salt solution.

Electrical energy is used to produce a chemical reaction, therefore,

the machining process based on this principle is known as
Electrochemical machining (ECM). This process works on the
principle of Faradays laws of electrolysis.

Michael Faraday discovered that if the two electrodes are placed in a

bath containing a conductive liquid and DC potential (5-25V) is
applied across them, metal can be depleted from the anode and
plated on the cathode This principle was in use for long time. ECM is
the reverse of the electroplating.
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Schematic of Process

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Chemistry of process

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Electrochemical Drilling Unit

Power supply
Electrolyte supply and
cleaning system
Tool and tool feed
system
Work piece and Work
holding system.

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Power Supply
During ECM, a high value of direct current ( may be as high as
40000 A) and a low value of electric potential ( in range of 5-25
V) across IEG( Interelectrode gap) is desirable.
The highest current density achieved so far is around 20,000
A/cm2.
Hence , with the help of a rectifier and a transformer, three
phase AC is converted to a low voltage, high current DC.
Silicon controlled rectifier (SCRs) are used both for rectification
as well as for voltage regulation because of their rapid
response to the changes in the process load and their
compactness.
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Electrolyte supply and Cleaning system

The electrolyte supply and cleaning system consisting of a

pump, filter, pipings, control valves, heating or cooling coils,
pressure gauges, and a storage tank ( or reservoir).

Electrolyte supply ports may be made in the tool, work or

fixture, depending upon the requirement of the mode of
electrolyte flow.

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Tool and Tool Feed system

Use of anti corrosive material for tools and fixtures is

important because they are required for a long period of
time to operate in the corrosive environment of electrolyte.

High thermal conductivity are main requirements.

Aluminum, Brass, Bronze, copper, carbon, stainless steel

and monel are a few of the material used for this purpose.

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Work piece and work holding system

Only electrically conductive material can be machined by

this process, The chemical properties of anode ( work)
material largely govern the material removal rate (MRR).

Work holding devices are made of electrically non

conductive materials having good thermal stability, and low
moisture absorption properties.

For Example, graphite fibres reinforced plastics, plastics,

Perspex,etc., are the materials used for fabricating the work
holding device.

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Applications

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Electrochemical Grinding

Electrochemical grindingis a process that removes electrically

conductive material by grinding with anegatively chargedabrasive
grinding wheel, anelectrolytefluid, and a positively charged work
piece.
Electrochemical grinding andelectrochemical machiningare similar
but a wheel is used instead of a tool shaped like the contour of the
work piece.
Process characteristics

1. The wheels and work piece are electrically conductive.

2. Wheels used last for many grindings - typically 90% of the metal is removed
byelectrolysisand 10% from the abrasive grinding wheel.
3. Capable of producing smooth edges without the burrs caused by mechanical
grinding.
4. Does not produce appreciable heat that would distort work piece.
5. Decomposes the work piece and deposits them into the electrolyte solution.
The most common electrolytes aresodium chlorideandsodium nitrate.
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Electrochemical Grinding

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Uses

Production of tungsten carbide cutting tools.

Burr-free sharpening of hypodermic needles
Grinding of super alloy turbine blades
Form grinding of aerospace honeycomb metals

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Electrodischarge Machining
The history of electrodischarge machining
(EDM) dates back to the days of World Wars I
and II.
The evolution of wire EDM in the 1970s was due
to the powerful generators, new wire tool
electrodes, improved machine intelligence, and
better flushing.
Recently, the machining speed has gone up by
20 times, which has decreased machining costs
by at least 30 percent and improved the
surface finish by a factor of 15.
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Advantages
1. Cavities with thin walls and fine features can be produced.
2. Difficult geometry is possible.
3. The use of EDM is not affected by the hardness of the work
material.
4. The process is burr-free.

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Machining System

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Characteristics of EDM
(a) The process can be used to machine any work material if it is electrically
conductive
(b) Material removal depends on mainly thermal properties of the work material
rather than its strength, hardness etc
(c) In EDM there is a physical tool and geometry of the tool is the positive
impression of the hole or geometric feature machined
(d) The tool has to be electrically conductive as well. The tool wear once again
depends on the thermal properties of the tool material
(e) Though the local temperature rise is rather high, still due to very small pulse
on time, there is not enough time for the heat to diffuse and thus almost no
increase in bulk temperature takes place. Thus the heat affected zone is limited
to 2 4 m of the spark crater
(f) However rapid heating and cooling and local high temperature leads to
surface hardening which may be desirable in some applications
(g) Though there is a possibility of taper cut and overcut in EDM, they can be
controlled and compensated.
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Process parameters

The open circuit voltage - Vo

The working voltage - Vw
The maximum current - Io
The pulse on time the duration for which the voltage pulse is applied - ton
The pulse off time - toff
The gap between the workpiece and the tool spark gap -
The polarity straight polarity tool (-ve)
The dielectric medium
External flushing through the spark gap.

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PulseOnTime(tepulsedurationins)
The duration of time(s)the current is allowed to flow per cycle.
Material removal(MRR) is directly proportional to the amount of energy
applied during this on-time
This energy is really controlled by the peak current and the length of the
on-time
PulseOff-Time(tointervaltimeins)
The duration of time(s) between the sparks
This time allows the molten to solidify and to be wash out of the arc gap
This parameter is to affect the speed and the stability of the cut
If the off-time is too short ,it will cause sparks to be unstable

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Uimachining voltage
(v)
ie peak current
tdignition delay time
(s)
te pulse duration (s)
to interval time (s)
(b) Non-electrical
parameters:
-Flushing
-Types of dielectric
medium (kerosene,
dielectric, etc)

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Spark gap
The distance between the electrode and the part during the process of EDM
Duty cycle
It is a percentage of the on-time relative to the total cycle time
This parameter is calculated by dividing the on-time by the total cycle time( on
time + off-time)
The result is multiplied by 100 for the percentage of efficiency or the so called
duty cycle
Intensity
Points out the different levels of power that can be supplied by the generator of
the EDM machine.

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Effect of pulse current (energy) on MRR & surface roughness.

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Effect of pulse on-time (energy) on MRR & surface roughness.

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Electrodes of EDM

Common electrodes used such as brass,tungsten,copper-tungsten,silvertungsten,copper,graphiteandetc.

Copper have been used primarily in resistance capacitance circuit where
higher voltage are employed.
Graphite commonly used in application to get fine surface,low cost and
high material removal rate.
Other type of electrodes are copper tungsten, brass, steel, cast iron, zinc
based alloys.

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Flushing is important because it removes eroded

particle from the gap between tool and work
piece while machining.
Methods:
a)Vacuum (suction) through electrode
b)Suction through work piece
c)Pressure through hole flushing (injection
flushing)
d)Pressure through work piece
e)Outside flushing (fluid injection, side flushing)
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MRR (cm3/min) = (Wb -Wa) / (*t)

Wa = Weight after machining
Wb= Weight before machining
= Density
t = Machining time.

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Applications of EDM
a)Sinking of two connecting rods with electrode.
b)Sinking of extrusion insert plate of motor
anchor with single electrode.
c)Machining of embossing die.
d)Machining of forging die.
e)Sinking of injection mold insert for light alloys

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LASER BEAM MACHINING

Laser is the abbreviation of light amplification by stimulated emission
of radiation. A highly collimated, monochromatic, and coherent light
beam is generated and focused to a small spot. High power densities
(1000000 W/mm2) are then obtained. A large variety of lasers are
available in the market including solid-state, ion, and molecular types in
either continuous wave (CW) or pulsed mode (PM) of operation.

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Electron Beam Machining

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Chemical Vapour Deposition

Chemical Vapour Deposition
Introduction
Chemical vapour deposition or CVD is a generic name
for a group of processes that involve depositing a solid
material from a gaseous phase.
Microfabrication processes widely use CVD to deposit
materials in various forms, including: monocrystalline,
polycrystalline, amorphous, and epitaxial.
These materials include: silicon, carbon fiber,
carbon nanofibers, filaments, carbon nanotubes, SiO2,
silicon-germanium, tungsten, silicon carbide, silicon
nitride, silicon oxynitride and titanium nitride.
CVD process is also used to produce synthetic diamonds.
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Working Concept
Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) results from the chemical
reaction of gaseous precursor(s) at a heated substrate to
yield a fully dense deposit.
Thermodynamics and kinetics drive both precursor
generation and decomposition.
Control of thermodynamics and kinetics through
temperature, pressure, and concentrations yields the desired
deposit.
A simplified concept diagram is shown as Fig
Metal deposition
metal halide (g) metal(s) + byproduct (g)
Ceramic deposition
metal halide (g) + oxygen/carbon/nitrogen/boron
source (g)
ceramic(s) + byproduct (g)
g- gas; s-solid
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A basic CVD process consists of the following steps:

a predefined mix of reactant gases and diluent
inert gases are introduced at a specified flow rate
into the reaction chamber;
the gas species move to the substrate;
the reactants get adsorbed on the surface of the
substrate;
the reactants undergo chemical reactions with
the substrate to form the film; and
the gaseous by-products of the reactions are
desorbed and evacuated from the reaction
chamber.

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During the process of chemical vapor deposition, the

reactant gases not only react with the substrate material at
the wafer surface (or very close to it), but also in gas phase
in the reactor's atmosphere.
Reactions that take place at the substrate surface are
known as heterogeneous reactions, and are selectively
occurring on the heated surface of the wafer where they
create good-quality films.
Reactions that take place in the gas phase are known as
homogeneous reactions.
Homogeneous reactions form gas phase aggregates of the
depositing material, which adhere to the surface poorly and
at the same time form low-density films with lots of
defects.
In short, heterogeneous reactions are much more desirable
than homogeneous reactions during chemical vapor
deposition.
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A typical CVD system consists of the following

parts:
sources of and feed lines for gases;
mass flow controllers for metering the gases
into the system;
a reaction chamber or reactor;
a system for heating up the wafer on which the
film is to be deposited; and
temperature sensors.

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Types of CVD
Classified by operating pressure:
Atmospheric pressure CVD (APCVD) CVD at atmospheric pressure.
Low-pressure CVD (LPCVD) CVD at sub-atmospheric pressures. Reduced
pressures tend to reduce unwanted gas-phase reactions and improve film
uniformity across the wafer.
Ultrahigh vacuum CVD (UHVCVD) CVD at very low pressure, typically below
106 Pa (~108 torr). Note that in other fields, a lower division between high
and ultra-high vacuum is common, often 107 Pa.

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Classified by physical characteristics of vapor:

Aerosol assisted CVD (AACVD) CVD in which the precursors are transported to
the substrate by means of a liquid/gas aerosol, which can be generated
ultrasonically. This technique is suitable for use with non-volatile precursors.
Direct liquid injection CVD (DLICVD) CVD in which the precursors are in liquid
form (liquid or solid dissolved in a convenient solvent). Liquid solutions are injected
in a vaporization chamber towards injectors (typically car injectors). The precursor
vapors are then transported to the substrate as in classical CVD. This technique is
suitable for use on liquid or solid precursors. High growth rates can be reached
using this technique.

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Plasma methods
Plasma Enhanced CVD (PECVD) CVD that utilizes plasma to enhance chemical
reaction rates of the precursors.PECVD processing allows deposition at lower
temperatures, which is often critical in the manufacture of semiconductors. The
lower temperatures also allow for the deposition of organic coatings, such as
plasma polymers, that have been used for nanoparticle surface functionalization.
Remote plasma-enhanced CVD (RPECVD) Similar to PECVD except that the
wafer substrate is not directly in the plasma discharge region. Removing the wafer
from the plasma region allows processing temperatures down to room temperature.
Combustion CVD (CCVD) Combustion Chemical Vapor Deposition or flame pyrolysis
is an open-atmosphere, flame-based technique for depositing high-quality thin films and
nanomaterials.
Rapid thermal CVD (RTCVD) This CVD process uses heating lamps or other
methods to rapidly heat the wafer substrate. Heating only the substrate rather than the
gas or chamber walls helps reduce unwanted gas-phase reactions that can lead
to particle formation.
Photo-initiated CVD (PICVD) This process uses UV light to stimulate chemical
reactions. It is similar to plasma processing, given that plasmas are strong emitters of
UV radiation. Under certain conditions, PICVD can be operated at or near atmospheric
pressure
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APCVD, LPCVD, and PECVD Comparison

CVD Process

Advantages

Disadvantages

Applications

APCVD

Simple,
Fast Deposition,
Low Temperature

Poor Step Coverage,

Contamination

Low-temperature Oxides

LPCVD

Excellent Purity,
Excellent Uniformity,
Good Step Coverage,
Large Wafer Capacity

High Temperature,
Slow Deposition

High-temperature Oxides, Silicon

Nitride, Poly-Si, W, WSi2

PECVD

Low Temperature,
Good Step Coverage

Chemical and Particle

Contamination

Low-temperature Insulators over

Metals, Nitride Passivation

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Advantages of CVD
Can be used for a wide range of metals and ceramics
Can be used for coatings or freestanding structures
Fabricates net or near-net complex shapes
Is self-cleaningextremely high purity deposits (>99.995%
purity)
Conforms homogeneously to contours of substrate surface
Has near-theoretical as-deposited density
Has controllable thickness and morphology
Forms alloys
Infiltrates fiber preforms and foam structures
Coats internal passages with high length-to-diameter ratios
Can simultaneously coat multiple components
Coats powders

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Applications
CVD processes are used on a surprisingly wide range of
industrial components, from aircraft and land gas turbine
blades, timing chain pins for the automotive industry, radiant
grills for gas cookers and items of chemical plant, to resist
various attacks by carbon, oxygen and sulphur.
Some important applications are listed below.
Surface modification to prevent or promote adhesion
Photoresist adhesion for semiconductor wafers
Silane/substrate adhesion for microarrays (DNA, gene, protein,
antibody, tissue)
MEMS coating to reduce stiction
BioMEMS and biosensor coating to reduce "drift" in device
performance
Promote biocompatibility between natural and synthetic
materials Copper capping Anti-corrosive coating

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Physical Vapour Deposition(PVD)

Introduction
1.Physical vapour deposition (PVD) is fundamentally a vaporisation
coating technique, involving transfer of material on an atomic
level. It is an alternative process to electroplating
2.The process is similar to chemical vapour deposition (CVD)
except that the raw materials/precursors, i.e. the material that is
going to be deposited starts out in solid form, whereas in CVD, the
precursors are introduced to the reaction chamber in the gaseous
state.

Working Concept

PVD processes are carried out under vacuum conditions. The process
involved four steps:
1.Evaporation
2.Transportation
3.Reaction
4.Deposition
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Evaporation

During this stage, a target, consisting of the material to be

deposited is bombarded by a high energy source such as a beam
of electrons or ions. This dislodges atoms from the surface of the
target, vaporising them.

Transport

This process simply consists of the movement of vaporised

atoms from the target to the substrate to be coated and will
generally be a straight line affair.

Reaction

In some cases coatings will consist of metal oxides, nitrides,

carbides and other such materials.
In these cases, the target will consist of the metal.
The atoms of metal will then react with the appropriate gas during
the transport stage.
For the above examples, the reactive gases may be oxygen,
nitrogen and methane.
In instances where the coating consists of the target material
alone, this step would not be part of the process.
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Deposition
This is the process of coating build up on the substrate surface.
Depending on the actual process, some reactions between target
materials and the reactive gases may also take place at the
substrate surface simultaneously with the deposition process.
Fig. shows a schematic diagram of the principles behind one
common PVD method.
The component that is to be coated is placed in a vacuum
chamber. The coating material is evaporated by intense heat from,
for example, a tungsten filament.
An alternative method is to evaporate the coating material by a
complex ion bombardment technique.
The coating is then formed by atoms of the coating material being
deposited onto the surface of the component being treated.

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The vacuum evaporation PVD process

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Variants of PVD include, in order of increasing novelty:

Evaporative Deposition: In which the material to be deposited is
heated to a high vapor pressure by electrically resistive heating in
"high" vacuum.
Electron Beam Physical Vapor Deposition: In which the material to
be deposited is heated to a high vapor pressure by electron
bombardment in "high" vacuum.
Sputter Deposition: In which a glow plasma discharge (usually
localized around the "target" by a magnet) bombards the material
sputtering some away as a vapor.
Cathodic Arc Deposition: In which a high power arc directed at the
target material blasts away some into a vapor.
Pulsed Laser Deposition: In which a high power laser ablates
material from the target into a vapor.

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Summary of Merits and Demerits of evaporation methods

Method

Merits

E-Beam Evaporation

1. high temp materials

2. good for liftoff
3. highest purity

1. some CMOS processes sensitive to

radiation
2. alloys difficult
3. poor step coverage

Filament Evaporation

1. simple to
implement
2. good for liftoff

1. limited source material (no high temp)

2. alloys difficult
3. poor step coverage

Sputter Deposition

Demerits

1. better step coverage 1. possible grainy films

2. alloys
2. porous films
3. high temp
3. plasma damage/contamination
materials
4. less radiation
damage

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Importance of PVD Coatings

PVD coatings are deposited for numerous reasons.
Some of the main ones are:
Improved hardness and wear resistance
Reduced friction
Improved oxidation resistance
The use of such coatings is aimed at improving
efficiency through improved performance and
longer component life.
They may also allow coated components to operate
in environments that the uncoated component
would not otherwise have been able to perform.
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Advantages
Materials can be deposited with improved properties compared to
the substrate material
Almost any type of inorganic material can be used as well as some
kinds of organic materials
The process is more environmentally friendly than processes such
as electroplating
Disadvantages
It is a line of sight technique meaning that it is extremely difficult
to coat undercuts and similar surface features
High capital cost
Some processes operate at high vacuums and temperatures
requiring skilled operators
Processes requiring large amounts of heat require appropriate
cooling systems
The rate of coating deposition is usually quite slow

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Applications
PVD coatings are generally used to improve
hardness, wear resistance and oxidation
resistance.
Thus, such coatings use in a wide range of
applications such as:
Aerospace
Automotive
Surgical/Medical
Dies and moulds for all manner of material
processing
Cutting tools
Fire arms 7878
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