Transport of O2 & CO2 in the Body

TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN & CARBON
DIOXIDE IN BODY FLUIDS
Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2
OUTLINE
Transport of O2 and CO2 in body fluids
1/6 Chemical properties and distributions of respiratory
pigments
2/6 O2-binding characteristics of respiratory pigments
3/6 Functions of respiratory pigments in animals
4/6 CO2 transport
5/6 Acid-base physiology
6/6 PBL
OUTLINE
pigments
Developing
mammalian fetus
recieves O2 and
voids CO2 by
means of close
juxtaposition of its
own blood vessels
with those of its
mothers
circulatory system
OUTLINE
pigments
O2 crosses
mothers blood to
fetuss blood by
diffusion through
tissues in placenta
OUTLINE
pigments
basic options for
gas transfer
mode: countercurrent
gas exchange;
cross-current
gas exchange;
cocurrent
(concurrent)
gas exchange
OUTLINE
pigments
4 chemical
categories
recognized: hemoglobins
hemocyanins
hemerythrins
chlorocruorins
OUTLINE
pigments
Many of their
important chemical
properties resemble
properties of
enzyme proteins.
HOWEVER,
respiratory
pigments are NOT
functionally
enzymes.
OUTLINE
pigments
Characters of
respiratory
pigments vs
enzymes: combination at
defined binding
sites;
highly specific
binding sites;
noncovalent &
weak bonding;
OUTLINE
pigments
Characters of
respiratory
pigments vs
enzymes: O2 is ligand of
hemoglobin
(when
hemoglobin
combines with
O2, molecular
conformation
changed);
OUTLINE
pigments
Characters of
respiratory
pigments vs
enzymes: affinity of
hemoglobin for
O2 (ease of
hemoglobin
binding with O2)
OUTLINE
pigments
Characters of
respiratory
pigments vs
enzymes: other ligands
(allosteric
ligands /
allostreric
modulators: H+,
CO2) for
hemoglobin
OUTLINE
pigments
Characters of
respiratory
pigments vs
enzymes: allosteric ligands
/ allostreric
modulators bind
to hemoglobin
affect bind of
primary ligand
(O2)
OUTLINE
pigments
Characters of
respiratory
pigments vs
enzymes: allosteric ligands
/ allostreric
modulators bind
to hemoglobin:
modifying
conformation &
flexibility
OUTLINE
pigments
Hemoglobin:
multisubunit
protein (consist
> 2 proteins
bonded together
by noncovalent
bonds)
multisubunit
hemoglobins
have O2-binding
site on each
subunit
OUTLINE
pigments
Hemoglobin:
cooperativity
among substratebinding sites:
binding of O2 to
any one site affects
how readily other
sides bind O2
Difference with
enzyme: they dont
modify ligand
OUTLINE
2/6 O2-binding characteristics of respiratory pigments
o key for understanding functions of respiratory pigments
: oxygen equilibrium curve @ oxygen dissociation
curve;
o Human has approximately 5.4x1020 heme groups per
100mL blood;
o Combination of O2 with each individual O2- binding site
is stoichiometric;
OUTLINE
3/6 Functions of respiratory pigments in animals
o respiratory pigments presently known to carry out at > 8
different functions;
aid routine transport of O2
O2 stores
buffers of blood pH
CO2 transport
increase rate of O2 diffusion through cytoplasm of
cells
enzymes
nonrespiratory transport roles
tissue functions other than O2 supply (regulation of
OUTLINE
4/6 CO2 transport
o CO2 dissolves in blood as CO2 molecules, but only small
fraction (about 5% in human arterial blood);
o reactions when CO2 dissolves in aqueous solutions: CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
CO2 + H2O = HCO3- + H+ (CO2 acts as an acid in
aqueous systems)
H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3- (bicarbonate can then dissociate
to carbonate CO32- and additional proton)
OUTLINE
5/6 Acid-base physiology
o pH of body fluids cannot vary far from normal level
without serious functional consequences;
o normal human blood pH at 37oC is 7.4;
o a person will lie to death if pH as high as 7.7 @ as low as
6.8;
o abnormal H+ concentrations affect functions of proteins;
OUTLINE
6/6 PBL
o A person has involved in an accident and suffered some
blood loss. Discuss the consequences of that condition
to the body and how to overcome the problems.
OUTLINE
O2 CO2 and internal transport at work: Diving by
marine mammals
Diving feats and behaviour
Types of dives and importance of method
Physiology
O2 stores of divers
Circulatory adjustments during dives
Metabolism during dives
Aerobic dive limit
Decompression sickness
Possible advantage for pulmonary O2 sequestration in deep
dives
Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport
OUTLINE
References
Hill, R. W., Wyse, G. A. & Anderson, M. 2008. Animal
physiology (2nd ed.). Sinauer Associates Inc.
OUTLINE
Chemical properties and distributions of respiratory
pigments
O2-binding characteristics of respiratory pigments
Functions of respiratory pigments in animals
CO2 transport
Acid-base physiology
OUTLINE
Circulation
Hearts
A: Circulatory in simple animals
B: Circulatory in complex animals
Open circulatory system
Closed circulatory system (Cardiovascular System)
o Adaptation
o Structural differences of arteries, veins and capillaries
correlate with their functions
o Single and Double Circulation
O2 CO2 and internal transport at work: Diving by marine
mammals
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
diffusion in gases
convective transport of gases
contrasting physical properties of air & water
respiratory environment
O2 & CO2 physiology

O2 and CO2 - respiratory gasses.
O2 is not actively transported in animal.
CO2 sometimes actively transported across cell membranes
(bicarbonate ions HCO3-) by reaction with water
Thus condition must be favourable for passive transport to
cells:o Fan worms: elaborate circulatory system; filled with
blood rich in hemoglobin-like O2- transport pigment;
spectacular tentacles (gills).
o Water beetle: bubble that act as gill while beetle
underwater (O2 moves steadily into bubble from water
when beetle submerged).
O2 & CO2 physiology
O2 & CO2 physiology
O2 & CO2 physiology

Exchanges of respiratory gasses - usually most urgent. A
person dies within minutes if denied O2, but can live for days
without exchanging nutrients, nitrogenous wastes or water.
WHY? - O2 as final electron acceptor in cellular respiration.
O2 & CO2 physiology

Energy cannot be transfered
from bonds of food molecules
to bonds of ATP by aerobic
catabolic apparatus of a cell
unless O2 is available to
combine with e- exiting the
electron-transport chain.
CO2 accumulation in body
rapidly acidify body fluids &
harmful.
O2 & CO2 physiology

2 mechanisms how respiratory gases move from a place to
another:o simple diffusion
o convection (bulk flow)
CHEMICAL POTENTIAL: provides basis for a truly general law
of diffusion.
DIFFUSION:[regions of high
chemical potential]
rate proportionate to difference

in chemical potential
[regions of low
chemical potential]
O2 & CO2 physiology

Diffusion within a single aqueous solution: [solute] is useful surrogate for chemical potential because
[solute] gives correct answers if used in diffusion equations.
Diffusion between gas mixtures and aqueous solutions: Concentration is not useful surrogate for chemical potential
Partial pressure is useful in expressing chemical potential for
gasses
O2 & CO2 physiology
1 atm
1 atm
Percent of all gas
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Argon
Carbon Dioxide
1 atm
20.95
78.08
0.93
0.04
Partial pressure in
atmosphere
0.2095
0.7808
0.0093
0.0004
Total = 1 atm
1 atm
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
o gases exist in air; other types of gas mixtures & dissolved
in aqueous solution.
o in aqueous solution, gas molecules distributed among H2O
molecules in same way glucose molecules / Na+ ions
incorporated among H2O molecules
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
gases in gas phase
o Law of partial pressures:TOTAL PRESSURE EXERTED BY A MIXTURE OF

GASES (IE ATM) IS SUM OF INDIVIDUAL
PRESSURES EXERTED BY EACH OF SEVERAL
COMPONENT GASES IN THE MIXTURE.
o Individual pressure exerted by any particular gas in a gas
mixture is PARTIAL PRESSURE of that gas.
o PARTIAL PRESSURE of each gas in a mixture is
independent of other gases present.
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
gases in gas phase
o Each component gas

1 atm
1 atm
behaves in terms of its
Partial pressure in
Percent of all
atmosphere
gas
partial pressure in a
0.2095
20.95
Oxygen
0.7808
78.08
Nitrogen
volume of mixed gases
0.0093
0.93
Argon
0.0004
0.04
Carbon Dioxide
as if it was alone
Total = 1 atm
1
atm
occupying the entire
1 atm
volume
o Thus partial pressure of
each gas in a gas mixture is PV = nRT (calculated from
universal gas law) where:P = pressure n = number of moles (gas quantity)
V = volume
R = universal gas constant
T = absolute temperature
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
gases in gas phase
o Proportion of gases in a
1 atm
1 atm
mixture expressed in
Partial pressure in
Percent of all
atmosphere
gas
fractional concentration.
0.2095
20.95
Oxygen
0.7808
78.08
Nitrogen
o Mole fractional
0.0093
0.93
Argon
0.0004
0.04
Carbon Dioxide
concentration of a
Total = 1 atm
1
atm
particular gas in a
1 atm
mixture is fraction of
total moles of gas
opresent.
ie. In a volume of dry atmospheric air near sea level, O 2
mole is 20.95% of total moles of all gases. Therefore mole
fractional concentration of O2 in dry air is 0.2095
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
gases in gas phase
o Proportion of gases in a
1 atm
1 atm
mixture expressed in
Partial pressure in
Percent of all
atmosphere
gas
fractional concentration.
0.2095
20.95
Oxygen
0.7808
78.08
Nitrogen
o Volume fractional
0.0093
0.93
Argon
0.0004
0.04
Carbon Dioxide
concentration of a
Total = 1 atm
1
atm
particular gas in a
1 atm
mixture is fraction of
total volume of gas
o ie.
If we remove O2 from a volume of dry atmospheric air at
present.
given temp and pressure, final volume will be 20.95% less
than original volume when same temp and press are
restored.
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
gases in gas phase
o Hence the partial

pressure exerted by
each gas in a mixture =
its fraction (mole
fractional concentration
or volume fractional
concentration) of the
total pressure.
o Px = FxPtot
1 atm
1 atm
Percent of all
gas
20.95
Oxygen
78.08
Nitrogen
0.93
Argon
Carbon Dioxide 0.04
Partial pressure in
atmosphere
0.2095
0.7808
0.0093
0.0004
Total = 1 atm
1 atm
1 atm
Px = partial pressure of a particular gas

Fx = mole or volume fractional concentration of the particular gas
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
gases in aqueous phase
o partial pressure (tension) of a gas in an aqueous solution is

equal to partial pressure of the gas in gas phase with which
the solution is at equilibrium.
O2 (0.21atm)
O2-free water
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases

O2 (0.21atm)
EQUILIBRIUM
O2 (0.21atm)
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases

O2 (0.19atm)
O2 (0.21atm)
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases

O2 (0.19atm)
O2
O2
O2 O2
O2 (0.21atm)
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases

O2 (0.19atm)
EQUILIBRIUM
O2 (0.19atm)
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
o Partial pressure and concentration of gas in aqueous

solution is more complicated than in gas.
o HENRY's LAW: fundamental law that relates partial
pressure and concentration in aqueous solutions.
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
o Several ways HENRY's LAW is expressed, employing

different but related coefficients: absorption coefficient: dissolved concentration of a gas
when the partial pressure of the gas in solution is 1 atm.
o Cx = APx
Px = partial pressure of the gas (x) in solution
Cx = dissolved concentration of a gas
A = absorption coefficient
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
Cx = APx
o In gas phase (Cx proportionate to Px): all gases have essentially identical quantitative relations
between Cx and Px (all adhere to universal gas law).
o In aqueous phase: A varies based on a) type of dissolved gas; b) type
solution of gas, depending on temperature and salinity of
water
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
Cx = APx
o Absorption coefficient (A) is measure of gas solubility: High A = high solubility (a lot of gas dissolve at any given
partial pressure).
o Three important characteristics of gases dissolved in
aqueous solutions when examining A: Solubilities of different gases are different.
Solubilities of gases in aqueous solutions decrease
strongly with increasing water temperature.
Solubilities of gases in aqueous solutions decrease with
increasing salinity.
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
Solubi N2<O2<C
lities
O2
of
1.1; 2.2;
differe 77
nt
mmol/L (A
gases of N ; O ;
2
2
are
(A=1.1)
differe CO2 in N2
o
cold
(0
C)
nt.
distilled
water
coldrespective
distilled water
ly.
1 atm
O2 (A=2.2)
cold distilled water
CO2 ((A=77)
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
Solubi N2<O2<C
lities
O2
of
1.1; 2.2;
differe 77
nt
mmol/L (A
gases of N ; O ;
2
2
are
(A=1.1)
differe CO2 in N2
o
cold
(0
C)
nt.
distilled
water
1.1mmol/L
coldrespective
distilled water
ly.
1 atm
O2 (A=2.2)
2.2mmol/L
CO2 ((A=77)
77mmol/L
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
Solubilit 40oC<20oC<
ies of
0oC
gases
(solubility of
in
O2 in
aqueou
distilled
s
water)
solution 1.0; 1.4; 2.2
s
mmol/L (A of
decrea
O2 in
se
distilled
strongly
water at
with
40oC<20oC<
increasi
0oC
ng
respectively.
water 1L 40oC distilled water
temper
O2 (1 atm)
1L 20oC distilled water
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
Solubilit 40oC<20oC<
ies of
0oC
gases
(solubility of
in
O2 in
aqueou
distilled
s
water)
solution 1.0; 1.4; 2.2
s
mmol/L (A of
decrea
O2 in
se
distilled
strongly
water at
with
40oC<20oC<
increasi
1.0mmol
0oC
ng
respectively.
water 1L 40oC distilled water
temper
O2 (1 atm)
1.4mmol
2.2mmol
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
Solubilities of gases in
aqueous solutions
decrease strongly with
increasing water
temperature. [true of all
gases]
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
Solubi A of O2 at
lities fixed temp
of
(0oC):gases fullin
strength
aqueo seawater
us
< 80%
soluti
seawater
ons
< distilled
decre
water
ase
1.7mmol/
with
L;
increa 1.8mmol/
O2 & CO2 physiology

properties of gases
Solubilities of
gases in aqueous
solutions decrease
with increasing
salinity.
Increasing salinity of aqueous solutions

drives gases out of the solution by
decreasing solubilities of gases - saltingout effect
O2 & CO2 physiology

2 mechanisms how respiratory gases move from a place to
another:o simple diffusion
o convection (bulk flow)
CHEMICAL POTENTIAL: provides basis for a truly general law
of diffusion.
DIFFUSION:[regions of high
chemical potential]
rate proportionate to difference

in chemical potential
[regions of low
chemical potential]
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
o 2 mechanisms how respiratory gases move from a place to
another: simple diffusion
convection (bulk flow)
o Same fundamental mechanism by which solutes diffuse
through solutions.
o Gas molecules move ceaselessly at random.
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
high chemical potential
low chemical potential
random movement carry more gas molecules away from high

chemical potential region to low chemical potential region
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
o FUNDAMENTAL LAW of GAS DIFFUSION: gas diffuse in
net fashion from areas of relatively high partial pressure
to areas of relatively low partial pressure.
(true within gas mixtures, within aqueous solutions, and
across gas-water interfaces)
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
partial pressure of
dissolved O2 higher
partial pressure of
dissolved O2 in blood
lower
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
o Diffusion of gases in direction of partial-pressure gradient
does not necessarily mean diffusion occurs in direction of
concentration gradient.
gas mixture of uniform temperature / aqueous solution of uniform temperature and
salinity
greater partial pressure (concentration) of a particular gas
lesser partial pressure (concentration) of a particular gas
diffusion from high to low partial pressure / high to low

concentration
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
o Under more complex circumstances: while obeying the
fundamental law of gas diffusion, gases diffuse from low to
high concentration
gas mixture of uniform temperature / aqueous solution of uniform temperature and
salinity
greater partial pressure (concentration) of a particular gas
lesser partial pressure (concentration) of a particular gas
diffusion from low to high partial pressure / low to high

concentration
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
o Eg. water beetles: Consider uniform temp of 20oC.
Environ water at equilibrium with atm (O2 partial pressure
in water is 0.21atm, [O2] in water is + 0.3mmol/L: Cx=APx (Cx=1.4(0.21)=0.294)
Air has richer O2 than water: Atmospheric air at 20oC with O2 partial pressure
0.21atm has [O2] of +8.6mmol/L.
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
o Eg. water beetles:liquid
air bubble
20oC; 0.21atm; [O2]=8.6mmol/L
water
beetle
20oC; 0.21atm; [O2]=0.3mmol/L

In gas and liquid phases, O2 moves from low [ ] to high [ ]
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
air bubble
20oC; 0.1atm; [O2]=4.3mmol/L
water
beetle
O2 condition is
halved
20oC; 0.21atm; [O2]=0.3mmol/L
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
o Eg. water beetles:02
02
liquid
02
air bubble
02
20oC; 0.1atm; [O2]=4.3mmol/L
02
02
water
beetle
02
20oC; 0.21atm; [O2]=0.3mmol/L
also applied to all gas substances (eg gaseous anesthetics /

gaseous poisons in & out of body
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
air bubble
20oC; 0.21atm; [O2]=8.6mmol/L
water
beetle
20oC; 0.21atm; [O2]=0.3mmol/L

O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
o Eg. scuba divers (humans and dolphins):-
air in lungs is at a pressure equal to the

ambient (environmental) water pressure
at the depth
air pressure in lungs = water pressure at
the depth
0m (1atm)
20m (3atm)
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
air in lungs is at a pressure equal to the

ambient (environmental) water pressure
at the depth
air pressure in lungs = 3 atm
(partial pressure of N2 in lung air = 78% of
total (2.3atm) [78% of 3atm].
0m (1atm)
20m (3atm)
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
o Eg. scuba divers (humans and dolphins):1 atm
1 atm
Percent of all gas
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Argon
Carbon Dioxide
1 atm
20.95
78.08
0.93
0.04
Partial pressure in
atmosphere
0.2095
0.7808
0.0093
0.0004
Total = 1 atm
1 atm
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
diver's blood will be equilibrium with lung

air (2.3atm) if long enough at 20m
0m (1atm)
20m (3atm)
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
0m (1atm)
High N2 partial pressure will force

macroscopic bubbles form in diver's blood
if diver suddenly comes to surface
20m (3atm)
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
o Eg. scuba divers (humans and dolphins):air lung N2 (2.3atm) at 20m
air lung N2 (0.78atm) at 0m
EQUILIBRIUM
EQUILIBRIUM
blood N2 (2.3atm)
diver sudden rise
blood N2 (2.3atm)
gases diffuse in net fashion from areas of relatively high partial

pressure to areas of relatively low partial pressure - LAW OF GAS
O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
air lung N2 (0.78atm) at 0m
EQUILIBRIUM
EQUILIBRIUM
blood N2 (2.3atm)
diver sudden rise
N2
N2
N2
blood N2 (0.78atm)
N2
N2
N2
N2
N2

O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
EQUILIBRIUM
blood N2 (2.3atm)
diver sudden rise

O2 & CO2 physiology

diffusion of gases
Standard practices: long stay avoidance at depth

come part way to surface and remain at
intermediate depth until blood N2
partial pressure falls to safe level
0m (1atm)
20m (3atm)
O2 & CO2 physiology

convective transport of gases (transport by bulk flow)
o 2 mechanisms how respiratory gases move from a place to
another: simple diffusion

convection (bulk flow)
o occurs when gas mixture or an aqueous solution flows and
gas molecules in gas/liquid are carried from place to place
by the fluid flow. Eg: transport of O2 by blood flow in
animal's circulatory systems
o Faster than gas diffusion because gas molecules move in
deterministic forced fashion rather than depending on
random molecular movements.
O2 & CO2 physiology

o Faster than gas diffusion because gas molecules move in
deterministic forced fashion rather than depending on

random molecular movements.
gas diffusion (slower)
convective gas transport (faster)
direction of
air/liquid flow
O2 & CO2 physiology

o 2 principle processes animals set fluid in motion to transport
gases (at cost of metabolic energy; reward-transport of O2

and CO2): breathing
blood pumping
o Convection requirements: muscular effort (breathing, blood pumping)
ambient (environmental) wind
water currents
O2 & CO2 physiology

o pattern of fluid / gas flow affects the gas transport:-
O2 & CO2 physiology

the oxygen cascade
O2 & CO2 physiology

expressing amounts and partial pressures of gases in other
units
O2 & CO2 physiology

contrasting physical properties of air & water
o
O2 & CO2 physiology

respiratory environment
o
External Respiration - Physiology of Breathing

fundamental concept of external respiration
principles of gas exchange by active ventilation
vertebrate breathing (fish; amphibians; reptiles other than
birds; mammals; birds; aquatic invertebrates & allied
groups;insects & other tracheate arthropods

fundamental concept of external respiration

principles of gas exchange by active ventilation

vertebrate breathing (fish; amphibians; reptiles other than
birds; mammals; birds; aquatic invertebrates & allied
groups;insects & other tracheate arthropods

O
Animal Physiology Cardiovascular & Circulation
GASTROVASCULAR CAVITY
for internal transport.
serves for digestion and diffusion of substances throughout
body.
Does not need circulatory system.
Body wall only two cells thick encloses central gastrovascular
cavity.
Fluid inside cavity continuous with water outside through a single

mouth. >> thus, both inner and outer tissue layers are bathed in
fluid.
Hydra, other cnidarians
Products of digestion in gastrovascular cavity directly available to

cells of inner layer, and only a short distance to diffuse to cells of
outer layer.
Hydra, other cnidarians
also have gastrovascular cavities (exchange materials with

environment through a single opening).
Hydra, other cnidarians, Planarians and most other flatworms
Flat shape of body and branching of gastrovascular cavity

ensure cells are bathed by suitable medium and diffusion
distances are short.
Planarians and most other flatworms
Animals with many cell layers

- gastrovascular cavities insufficient for internal distances
because diffusion transports too great.
More complex animals

- Two types of circulatory systems
overcome the limitations of diffusion
a) open circulatory systems and
b) closed circulatory systems.
Both have :i) circulatory fluid (blood),
ii) a set of tubes (blood vessels),
iii) muscular pump (the heart).
B: Circulatory in complex animals - Open circulatory system
Insects, other arthropods, and most

molluscs
- Open circulatory system
- blood bathes organs directly.
- No distinction between blood and
interstitial fluid (collectively called
hemolymph).
- One or more hearts pump
hemolymph into interconnected
sinuses surrounding organs, allowing
Insects, other arthropods, and most

mollusks
- Heart is an elongated dorsal tube.
- When heart contracts, it pumps
hemolymph through vessels out into
sinuses.
- When heart relaxes, it draws
hemolymph into circulatory through pores
called ostia.
- Body movements that squeeze the
sinuses help circulate the hemolymph.
Earthworms, Squid, Octopuses, and

Vertebrates
- Closed Circulatory System.
- Blood is confined to vessels, and is
distinct from the interstitial fluid.
- One or more hearts pump blood into
large vessels that branch into smaller
ones cursing through organs.
- Materials are exchanged by
diffusion between the blood
and the interstitial fluid
B: Circulatory in complex animals - Closed circulatory system
- Closed Circulatory System (often

called Cardiovascular System).
- Heart consists of :i) one atrium or two atria
(chambers receive blood
returning to heart), and
ii) one or two ventricles
(chambers
that pump blood out of heart).
Adaptations
Blood Vessels:
i) Arteries
ii) Capillaries
iii) Veins
Adaptations
Blood Vessels:
i) Arteries
(carry blood away from heart to organs).
Within organs, arteries branch into
arterioles (small vessels that convey
blood to capillaries)
ii) Capillaries
iii) Veins
Adaptations
Blood Vessels:
i) Arteries
ii) Capillaries
Capillaries with very thin, porous walls
form networks, called capillary beds,
that infiltrate each tissue. At
their downstream end, capillaries
converge into venules, and venules
converge into veins
iii) Veins
Adaptations
Blood Vessels:
i) Arteries
ii) Capillaries
iii) Veins
Return blood to the heart.
Adaptations
Blood Vessels:
Arteries VS veins:
distinguished
by direction in which
they carry blood, not by
characteristics of the
blood they carry.
Adaptations
Metabolic rate - important factor in evolution of cardiovascular
systems.
Animals with high metabolic rates - more complex circulatory
systems & more powerful hearts than with low metabolic rate
animals.
Adaptations
Complexity and number of blood vessels in a particular
organ - correlated with organs metabolic requirements.
Adaptations
Most fundamental differences in cardiovascular adaptations
are associated with gill breathing in aquatic vertebrates
compared with lung breathing in terrestrial vertebrates.

Structural differences of arteries, veins
and capillaries correlate with their
functions
All blood vessels are built of similar

tissues.

Structural differences of arteries, veins and capillaries correlate
with their functions
Walls of both arteries and veins have three similar layers: Outside, a layer of connective tissue with elastic fibers allows the

Walls of both arteries and veins have three similar layers: Middle layer has smooth muscle and more elastic fibers.

Walls of both arteries and veins have three similar layers: Lumen of all blood vessels, including capillaries - endothelium (single

Capillaries: Only endothelium and its basement membrane, thus enhancing

Arteries have thicker middle and outer layers than veins.

The thicker walls of arteries provide strength to accommodate

blood pumped rapidly and at high pressure by the heart.

Their elasticity (elastic recoil) helps maintain blood pressure even

Thinner-walled veins convey blood back to heart at low velocity

Blood flows mostly as a result of skeletal

Blood flows mostly as a result of skeletal

Within larger VEINS, flaps of tissues act as one-way valves that
Single & Double Circulation

Fish
- Two main chambers: one atrium
one ventricle
- Blood is pumped from ventricle to
gills (the gill circulation) where it
picks up oxygen and disposes of
carbon dioxide across capillary walls.

Fish
- Gill capillaries converge into vessel
that carries oxygenated blood to
capillary beds at the other organs (the
systemic circulation) and back to
heart.

Fish
Blood must pass through two capillary
beds (gill capillaries and systemic
capillaries).
When blood flows through capillary
bed, blood pressure drops
substantially.

Fish
Therefore, oxygen-rich blood leaving
gills flows to systemic circulation quite
slowly (although the process is aided
by body movements during swimming).
This constrains delivery of oxygen to
body tissues, and hence the maximum
aerobic metabolic rate of fishes.

Frogs and other amphibians
Three-chambered heart with two atria
and one ventricle.
The ventricle pumps blood into a
forked artery that splits the ventricles
output
into the pulmocutaneous and syste
mic circulations.

Pulmocutaneous circulation leads to
capillaries in gas-exchange organs (the
lungs and skin of a frog), where the
blood picks up O2 and releases
CO2 before returning to the hearts left
atrium.
Most returning blood is pumped into the
systemic circulation, which supplies all
body organs and then returns oxygen-

This scheme (double circulation),
provides vigorous flow of blood to brain,
muscles, and other organs because
blood is pumped a second time after it
loses pressure in capillary beds of lung
or skin.

In ventricle of frog, some oxygen-rich
blood from lungs mixes with oxygenpoor blood that has returned from the
rest of the body.
However, a ridge within ventricle

diverts most oxygen-rich blood
from left atrium into systemic
circuit and most oxygen-poor blood


Reptilians
Reptiles also have double circulation
with pulmonary (lung) and systemic
circuits.
However, there is even less mixing of
oxygen-rich and oxygen-poor blood
than in amphibians.
Although the reptilian heart is threechambered, the ventricle is partially

Reptilians

Crocodilians, birds, and mammals
Ventricle completely divided into
separate right and left chambers: Left side of heart receives and
pumps only oxygen-rich blood

Right side handles only oxygenpoor blood.
Double circulation restores pressure
to the systemic circuit and prevents

Evolution of powerful fourchambered heart was essential
adaptation in support of
endothermic way of life
characteristic of birds and
mammals.

Endotherms use about ten times as
much energy as ectotherms of the same
size.
Therefore, endotherm circulatory system
needs to deliver about ten times as much
fuel and O2 to their tissues and remove
ten times as much wastes and CO2.
SKELETEL, CIRCULATION, BREATHING SYSTEMS
3. Double circulation in mammals depends on anatomy and

pumping cycle of heart
SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
Mammalian cardiovascular system :1.pulmonary circuit

2.system circuits (systemic)
(both operate simultaneously)

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
The two ventricles pump

almost in unison
While some blood is
traveling in the
pulmonary circuit, the
rest of the blood is
flowing in the systemic

SKELETAL
The pulmonary circuit carries blood from the

heart to the lungs and back again.
CIRCULATION
(1) The right ventricle pumps blood to the

lungs via (2) the pulmonary arteries.
BREATHING
As blood flows through (3) capillary beds in

the right and left lungs, it loads O2 and
unloads CO2.
Oxygen-rich blood returns from the lungs via
the pulmonary veins to (4) the left atrium of
the heart.
Next, the oxygen-rich blood blows to (5) the

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
The left ventricle pumps oxygen-rich blood out to

the body tissues through the systemic circulation.
Blood leaves the left ventricle via (6) the aorta,
which conveys blood to arteries leading
throughout the body.
The first branches from the aorta are the
coronary arteries, which supply blood to the
heart muscle.
The next branches lead to capillary beds (7) in
the head and arms.
The aorta continues in a posterior direction,
supplying oxygen-rich blood to arteries leading
to (8) arterioles and capillary beds in the
abdominal organs and legs.

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
Venous return to the right side of the heart begins

as capillaries rejoin to form venules and then
veins.
Oxygen-poor blood from the head, neck, and
forelimbs is channeled into a large vein called
(9) the anterior (or superior) vena cava.
Another large vein called the (10) posterior (or
inferior) vena cava drains blood from the trunk
and hind limbs.
The two venae cavae empty their blood into
(11) the right atrium, from which the oxygenpoor blood flows into the right ventricle.

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
The mammalian heart is located beneath the

breastbone (sternum) and consists mostly of
cardiac muscle.
The two atria have relatively thin walls and
function as collection chambers for blood
returning to the heart.
The ventricles have thicker walls and
contract much
more strongly than the atria.

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
A cardiac cycle is one complete sequence of

pumping, as the heart contracts, and filling,
as it relaxes and its chambers fill with blood.
The contraction phase is called systole,
and the
relaxation phase is called diastole.

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
For a human at rest with a pulse of about 75

beat per minute, one complete cardiac cycle
takes about 0.8 sec.
(1) During the relaxation phase (atria and
ventricles in diastole) lasting about 0.4
sec, blood returning from the large veins
flows into atria and ventricles.
(2) A brief period (about 0.1 sec) of atrial
systole forces all the remaining blood out
of the atria and into the ventricles.
(3) During the remaining 0.3 sec of the

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
Cardiac output depends on two factors: the rate

of contraction or heart rate (number of beats per
second) and stroke volume, the amount of
blood pumped by the left ventricle in each
contraction.
The average stroke volume for a human is
about 75 mL.
The typical resting cardiac output, about 5.25
L / min, is about equivalent to the total volume
of blood in the human body.
Cardiac output can increase about fivefold
during heavy exercise.

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
Four valves in the heart, each consisting of flaps

of connective tissue, prevent backflow and keep
blood moving in the correct direction.
Between each atrium and ventricle is an
atrioventricular (AV) valve which keeps
blood from flowing back into the atria when
the ventricles contract.
Two sets of semilunar valves, one between
the left ventricle and the aorta and the other
between the right ventricle and the pulmonary
artery, prevent backflow from these vessels
into the ventricles while they are relaxing.

SKELETAL
The heart sounds we can hear with a

stethoscope are caused by the closing of the
valves.
CIRCULATION
The sound pattern is lub-dup, lub-dup, lubdup.
BREATHING
The first heart sound (lub) is created by the

recoil of blood against the closed AV valves.
The second sound (dup) is the recoil of blood
against the semilunar valves.

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
A defect in one or more of the valves causes

a heart murmur, which may be detectable
as a hissing sound when a stream of blood
squirts backward through a valve.
Some people are born with heart murmurs.
Others are due damage to the valves by
infection.
Most heart murmurs do not reduce the
efficiency of blood flow enough to warrant
surgery.

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
Because the timely delivery of oxygen to the

bodys organs is critical for survival, several
mechanisms have evolved that assure the
continuity and control of heartbeat.
Certain cells of vertebrate cardiac muscle are
self-excitable, meaning they contract without
any signal from the nervous system.
Each cell has its own intrinsic contraction
rhythm.
However, these cells are synchronized by
the sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker,

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
The cardiac cycle is regulated by electrical

impulses that radiate throughout the heart.
Cardiac muscle cells are electrically
coupled by intercalated disks between
adjacent cells.

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
(1) The SA node generates electrical

impulses, much like those produced by
nerves that spread rapidly (2) through the
wall of the atria, making them contract in
unison.
The impulse from the SA node is delayed by
about 0.1 sec at the atrioventricular (AV)
node, the relay point to the ventricle,
allowing the atria to empty completely
before the ventricles contract.
(3) Specialized muscle fibers called bundle

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
The impulses generated during the heart

cycle produce electrical currents that are
conducted through body fluids to the skin.
Here, the currents can be detected by
electrodes and recorded as an
electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG).

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
While the SA node sets the tempo for the

entire heat, it is influenced by a variety of
physiological cues.
Two sets of nerves affect heart rate with
one set speeding up the pacemaker and
the other set slowing it down.
Heart rate is a compromise regulated
by the opposing actions of these two
sets of nerves.
The pacemaker is also influenced by
hormones.
For example, epinephrine from the
1. Transport systems functionally connect

organs of exchange with body cells
SKELETAL
2. Most invertebrates have gastrovascular cavity

or circulatory system for internal transport
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
1.Vertebrate phylogeny is reflected in

adaptations of cardiovascular system
2.Double circulation in mammals depends on

anatomy and pumping cycle of the heart
3.Structural differences of arteries, veins, and

capillaries correlate with their different
functions
Exchange of materials and energy with environment

occurs at cellular level
SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
Cells live in aqueous environments

The resources that they need (nutrients and oxygen)
- move across plasma membrane to cytoplasm
Metabolic wastes (eg: carbon dioxide) - move out of
cell
SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
Aquatic organisms :- Gills present an expansive surface

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
area to outside environment.

- Dissolved O2 in surrounding water
diffuses across thin epithelium
BREATHING
covering gills and into a network

of tiny blood vessels (capillaries).
- At the same time, CO2 diffuses out
into water.
1. Transport systems functionally connect the organs of

exchange with the body cells: an overview
SKELETAL
Diffusion :- Not adequate for transporting substances
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
over long distances in animals

(eg. - for moving glucose from
digestive tract, and
- moving oxygen from the lungs to
the brain of mammal).

SKELETAL
Diffusion :- Insufficient over distances of more
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
than a few millimeters (because the time

it takes for a substance to diffuse to one
place to another is proportional to the
square of the distance.
SOLUTION?
The circulatory system (ensuring no
substance must diffuse very far to enter or
leave a cell).

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
The bulk transport of fluids throughout

body:> connects aqueous environment of body
cells to organs that exchange gases,
absorb nutrients, and dispose of
wastes.
eg: in mammalian lung, O2 from

inhaled air diffuses across a
thin epithelium and into the
blood, while carbon dioxide

SKELETAL
CIRCULATION
BREATHING
Bulk fluid movement in circulatory

system, powered by the heart, quickly
carries the O2-rich blood to all body parts.
As blood streams through tissues within
microscopic vessels (capillaries),
chemicals are transported between blood
and interstitial fluid that bathes the cells.
Heart
o Structure (structure variation; adaptation; cardiac
muscle;
o Pumping (mechanisms; regulation-rate, electrical, ;
cardiac muscle; blood pressure; variation in animal
eg deep sea divers, bird, etc; )
Blood vessels
o Structure, Variation
o Nutrient absorbtion (mechanisms, regulation
Abnormalities
o High bp (medicines-mechanism); cardiac arrest / heart
attack;

Transport of O2 & CO2 in the Body

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Transport of O2 & CO2 in the Body

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TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN & CARBON

DIOXIDE IN BODY FLUIDS

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology Transport of O2 & CO2

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

rate proportionate to difference

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

o Law of partial pressures:TOTAL PRESSURE EXERTED BY A MIXTURE OF

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

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o Each component gas

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology

o Hence the partial

Px = partial pressure of a particular gas

Animal Physiology O2; CO2 & Internal Transport

O2 & CO2 physiology