Section 3.

7
Finishing
Rev. 4
8/20/01

Overview
Machining Fundamentals
Surface Finishing
Secondary Processing Discontinuities

Acoustic Emission

Part 1 Machining
Fundamentals

Machining

Most universally used and the most important

of all manufacturing processes.
Is a shape-producing process in which a
power driven device causes material to be
removed in chip form.
Preferred method for producing one or a few
parts.
Capable of high accuracies and surface
finishes.

Machining Fundamentals

Based on the fact that one material can

be harder and stronger than another.

If the harder material is properly shaped, it

can be called a tool.
When the tool is brought into contact with a
weaker workpiece with sufficient force,
failure results in the workpiece.
The loading is controlled in machining as to
produce only localized failure in the
workpiece.

Machining Fundamentals
C H IP

TO O L

SHEAR
ANG LE

W O R K P IE C E
RESULTANT
FO RCE

R E G IO N O F M A X IM U M
SHEAR STRESS

Chip Formation
A cutting tool is merely a device for
applying external loads to the work
material.
If a tool is strong enough, and the work
is rigid enough to resist deflection away
from the tool, a chip will be produced by
the relative motion between the two.

Chip Formation

The applied load may be broken down

into two forces:

A force perpendicular to the tool face

(normal force); and
A force along the tool face (friction force).

As shear stresses reach a critical limit

for the work, plastic flow and ultimately,
fracture failure will occur.

Chip Formation

Chip Types

Segments,
Continuous, and
Intermittent.

Regardless of the type of chip produced

during machining, force must be used
and energy expended resulting in
material deformation and heat
formation.

Cutting Tool Materials

The requirements for a satisfactory

cutting tool material are:

That it be harder and stronger than the

material it is to cut;
That it be abrasion resistant to reduce
wear; and
That it be able to maintain the properties at
the temperatures to which it will be
exposed.

Cutting Tool Materials

The principal difference between

tool materials is their ability to

maintain hardness and strength at
elevated temperatures.

Cutting Tool Materials

Common Materials:

Carbon Tool Steel

High Speed Steel
Cast Nonferrous Alloys
Cemented Carbides
Ceramics/Cermets
Diamonds
Coated Tool Materials

Abrasives
Used as wheels, sticks, or stones, or in
free form.
May consist of:

Aluminum Oxide,
Silicon Oxide,
Diamond, or
Boron Cubic Nitride.

Machining Tools

Equipment designed to hold a cutting

tool and workpiece and establish a
suitable set of motions between them to
remove material in chip form.

Machining Tools

5 basic types of Equipment:

Turning and Boring
Drilling
Straight Line Machines
Grinding
Production Equipment

Machinability
Used to describe the the relative ease at
which any material may be machined.
Considerations:

Finish,
Power Consumption, and
Tool life.

Numerical Control
Numerical control (N/C) systems are
auxiliary machine control equipment.
Consists of storing information in the
form of numbers and supplying that
information in proper order to the
machine to cause the machine to go
through some predetermined cycle of
operation.

Chipless Machining
Have the general appearance and
general design features of conventional
machine tools.
Failure is produced chemically or
thermally, rather than mechanically.

Chipless Machining

Processes include:

Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
Chemical Milling
Ultrasonic Machining
Other methods

Part 2 Surface Finishing

Surface Finishing
Products frequently require some type
of surface finishing to enable them to
satisfactorily fulfill their function.
May be performed to:

ensure proper fit-up,

remove burrs and sharp corners that may
be harmful in later use, and/or
for corrosion protection.

Casehardening of Steels
Some products applications require
surface properties of hardness and
strength to resist penetration under high
pressure and to provide maximum wear
properties.
Casehardening involves a change in
surface properties to produce a hard,
wear resistant shell about a tough,
fracture resistant core.

Casehardening of Steels
May be more satisfactory than through
hardening in cases where a low cost,
low carbon steel with a hard shell may
be used.
Often suitable for heavy sections that
would require very special alloy steels
for through hardening to be effective.

Carburizing

Performed on low alloy or plain low

carbon steels.

Material is heated above its critical

temperature and held in the presence of
excess carbon, supplied in a gas, liquid, or
solid environment.
Typically followed by quenching, returning
the materials to its critical temperature,
quenching, and tempering.

Flame hardening
The case is produced by selectively
heating part or all of the surface above
the critical temperature.
The depth of hardness is controlled by:

The temperature to which the material is

raised
The rate of heating
The time to quenching

Cleaning
Most products require some type of
cleaning to be useable.
Dependent upon a number of factors:

Cost
Convenience in handling
Improvement in appearance
Elimination of foreign materials
Establishment of a chemically clean
surface

Cleaning Methods
Liquid and vapor baths
Blasting
Abrasive barrel finishing
Wire brushing

Polishing

Generally interpreted to mean any nonprecision procedure providing a glossy

surface:
Polishing (surface blending)
Buffing
Electropolishing

Coatings

Typically used to:

Improve Appearance (smoothness, color,

etc.).
Improve Properties (Wear resistance,
corrosion resistance, etc).
Increase or decrease of coefficient of
friction.

Coatings

Coatings can consist of:

Paints
Varnish
Enamel
Lacquers
Vitreous (porcelain) enamels

Coatings

Metallizing

Process in which metal wire is fed into an

oxyacetylene heating flame and then, after
melting, is carried by high velocity air to be
impinged against the work surface.
Bonding action is mostly mechanical, and
metal spraying is usually done on surfaces
that have been roughened to aid
attachment.

Coatings

Vacuum Metallizing

Usually used for reflective or decorative

purposes.
Metal is vaporized in a high vacuum
chamber containing parts to be coated.
The metal vapor condenses on the
exposed surfaces in a thin film that follows
the surface pattern.

Coatings

Hot dip plating

Zinc, tin, and lead are applied to steel for

corrosion protection.
Material is immersed in molten plating
metal.

Coatings

Electroplating

Electrical and chemical system used to

deposit thin coatings of copper, nickel,
chromium, cadmium, zinc, tin, silver, and
gold.
May use multiple metals for maximum
properties.

Chemical Conversions
Methods of converting some of the
surface material to a chemical
composition the resists attack from the
environment.
Includes:

Anodizing,
Chromate Coatings,
Phosphate coatings, and
Chemical oxide coatings.

Part 3 Secondary
Processing Discontinuities

Secondary Processing
Discontinuities
Discontinuities that originate from
grinding, heat treating, machining,
plating and related finishing operations.
Such discontinuities may be the most
costly because all previous processing
costs are lost when the component is
diverted from service.

Secondary Processing
Discontinuities

Grinding Cracks
Cause: Localized overheating of the material due
to improper grinding procedures.
Location: Surface- usually occur in groups at right
angles

Heat Treating Cracks

Cause: Uneven heating or cooling.
Location: Surface.

Secondary Processing
Discontinuities

Quench Cracks
Cause: Sudden cooling from elevated
temperatures.
Location: Surface.

Plating Cracks
Cause: Residual stresses being relieved.
Location: Surface.