2E4: SOLIDS & STRUCTURES

Lecture 9
Dr. Bidisha Ghosh
Notes:
http://www.tcd.ie/civileng/Staff/Bidisha.
Ghosh/Solids & Structures

Hookes Law
A material which regains its shape when the external
load is removed is considered as perfectly elastic.
From

tensile tests, it can be seen within the range of elastic

behaviour of a material the elongation is proportional to both
the external load and the length of the bar.

1 Pl Pl

E A AE

For linearly elastic materials, this Stress is

proportional to strain.

The

factor of proportionality between stress and

strain is called, Modulus of Elasticity or Youngs
modulus.
E has the dimension of stress

We already know Hookes law, but

what does it tell us?
It
tells us that how a material is going to behave
and change size (length/width/height).
How do we know E?
E is always found out from experiments. So, we
have to stretch or compress things to know that
what is the value of E for any material.
The relationship between stress and strain is
defined by E.
Plrelation
l between

And, actually it is
the
load and

AE
deformation.
AE

So, for a material of known length and area a graph

Tensile Test
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hD_NJaZIpT0&feature=related

Tensile Test

Check this link for tensile test

movie:
http://web.mst.edu/~mecmovie/

Extensometer
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A-nN7tnXLI
M

Tensile Test
1.

Linear elastic region.

Slope of this linear part is
the youngs modulus.

2.

The proportional limit is

the stress when stressstrain relationship is starts
to become nonlinear.
(Beyond this limit the
material is not elastic)

Permanent
deformation

3.

Yielding (strain hardening)

4.

Ultimate strength

5.

necking

6.

Fracture Stress

7.

Unload-reloading creates
strain hardening/work
hardening

Stress-Strain Diagram
The Load-deformation plot does not provide material
properties.
But, when converted to stress-strain plot it provides all the
information needed. Notice elastic limit and
proportionality limits are different!
Some materials are still elastic
ultimate stress
beyond the linearNotice
(proportional)
is higher than fracture
section of the curve.
because
But in all practicalstress.
cases This
theyis
are
this graph do not plot
same.
the true stress
accounting for the
reduction in area due
to necking. This is
called engineering
stress. The true stress
actually is higher at
fracture.

Glossary
Proportionality Limit: The point till which the stress-strain curve is linear.
Elastic Limit: The point beyond which the material will no longer go back
to its original shape when the load is removed.
Yield Point: It is the point at which the material will have an appreciable
elongation or yielding without any increase in load.
Ultimate Strength: The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is
the ultimate strength or tensile strength.
Fracture Strength: It is the strength of the material at rupture. This is
also known as the breaking strength.
Residual Strain: In the plastic region, after unloading the material does
not go back to its original shape and the remaining strain in the material
is called residual strain and the elongation is called permanent set.
Work Hardening: Also known as strain hardening, after yielding occurs
the material can withstand increase amount of stress, showing increase
in strength.
True stress-strain & engineering stress-strain: The engineering strain is
calculated using the initial cross-sectional area of the specimen.
Creep: A solid material deforms permanently under the influence of
continuous loading below yield stress.

Stress-Strain Diagram

Ductile

materials are those which can yield and undergo

significant deformation in normal temperature.
Brittle

materials rupture with little deformation.

Concrete

Concrete is very weak in tension (10% of its

compressive strength) and very strong in
compression.

Concrete behaves like a brittle material when

assumed homogenous.

compression testing
of concrete

Properties of Typical Materials

Material
Aluminum
Bone (compression)

Yield
Young's Modulus Ultimate Streng
(Modulus of
Strengt th
Elasticity) (GPa) h (MPa) (Mpa)
110
95
69
9

170

30

40

Concrete (high
strength)
(compression)
Diamond (C)

1220

Wood (compression)

9-13

40-50

Glass

50 - 90

50

Steel

200

400

250

Hookes Law: Shear Modulus

Direct shear test on soil!

shear
modulusormodulus of
rigidity, G
Elasticity can be measured
for shear loading. Generally
a direct shear tests or
torsion test can be used.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L1fWPypBP0g

Using Hookes law for the

linear elastic part of the
stress-strain
G diagram,
F

A
G
tan

Poissons Ratio

dy
dz

dx

In elastic range, the ratio of lateral strain to

elastic strain is constant.

lateral strain

axial strain

y x and, z x
The lateral strain caused due to Poisson's ratio do not
result/create any stress in lateral direction.

Values of
The concept is only valid for uniaxial strain and
isotropic material.
In case of perfectly incompressible material, is
0.5. For all practical cases,
0<
Generally, between 0.25-0.35
For steel, assumed to be 0.3
For concrete, assumed to be 0.1

For incompressible material, 0.5 (may be, water)

(1 2 ) x
V
unit volume change or dialation, e
(1 2 ) x
V0
E
E
2(1 v)

Relation between elastic moduli:

G

Strain Energy
The external work done on an elastic body in
causing it to distort/deform from its original
state is stored in the body as strain energy. For
perfectly elastic body no dissipation of energy
occurs and this energy is recoverable on
unloading.
Strain energy is
the area under the
linear part of
stress strain curve

Strain Analysis
What happens when we apply 1-D stress?

longitudinal strain, x

; lateral strain, z x
E
E

What happens when we apply 2-D stress?

y
y
x

longitudinal strain, x

; lateral strain, z
x
E
E
E
E

Strain Analysis
What happens when we apply 3-D stress?

( y z )
x
x

;
E
E
y
( x z )
y

;
E
E
( x y )
proportional
z
z

;
E
E

stress and strain are not

any more!!

How much does the volume change?

3-D case
Lets assume initial volume, abc
Final volume
= (1 x )a.(1 y )b.(1 z )c

a
b

Change in volume
= (1 x )(1 y )(1 z ) 1 abc
x y z x y y z z x z x y abc

1
[ x ( y z ) y ( x z ) z ( x y )]abc
E

Hence, strain or volumetric strain,

v (1 2 )

( y z x )
E