SAMPLING

LOUIS COHEN, LAWRENCE MANION

& KEITH MORRISON

STRUCTURE OF THE CHAPTER

Sample

size
Sampling error
The representativeness of the sample
Access to the sample
Sampling strategy to be used
Probability samples
Non-probability samples
Sampling in qualitative research
Sampling in mixed methods research
Planning a sampling strategy

HOW LARGE MUST MY SAMPLE BE?

It all depends on:
The

research purposes, questions and design;

The population size;
The confidence level and confidence interval
required;
The likely response rate;
The accuracy required (the smallest sampling
error sought);
The kinds of variables to be used (categorical,
continuous);
The statistics to be used;

HOW LARGE MUST MY SAMPLE BE?

The

number of strata required;

The number of variables included in the study;
The variability of the factor under study;
The kind(s) of sample;
The representativeness of the sample;
The allowances to be made for attrition and nonresponse;
The need to keep proportionality in a
proportionate sample;
The kind of research that is being undertaken
(qualitative/quantitative/mixed methods).

SAMPLE SIZE
N
10
15
30
100
200
300

S
10
14
28
80
132
169

N
400
500
1,000
1,500
3,000
5,000

S
196
217
278
306
346
357

N = Population; S = Sample
Note: As the population increases, the proportion
of the population in the sample decreases.

PROPORTION OF SAMPLE SIZE TO POPULATION

Note: As the population increases, the proportion of the

population in the sample decreases.

SAMPLE SIZE
Ensure

a sufficiently large sample for each

variable.
Samples in qualitative research must be large
enough to generate thick descriptions.
A large sample does not guarantee
representativeness; representativeness
depends on the sampling strategy.
Sample size also depends on the
heterogeneity or homogeneity of the
population: if it is highly homogeneous then a
smaller sample may be possible.

SAMPLE SIZE
Large samples are preferable when:
there

are many variables;

only small differences or small relationships are
expected or predicted;
the sample will be broken down into subgroups;
the sample is heterogeneous in terms of the
variables under study;
reliable measures of the dependent variable are
unavailable.

SAMPLE SIZE
A weighted

sample may be required if there

are small sub-groups of populations.
A weighted sample: where a higher proportion
of the sub-group is sampled, and then the
results are subsequently scaled down to be
fairer in relation to the whole sample.

SAMPLE SIZE
Sample

size depends on the style of research

(e.g. surveys may require large samples,
ethnographies may require smaller samples).
Sample size depends on the numbers of
variables to be used, the kinds of variables, and
the statistics to be calculated.
Sample size depends on the scales being used in
measurement (the larger the scale, the larger the
sample).

STANDARD ERROR OF THE SAMPLE

If

many samples are taken from the same

population, it is unlikely that they will all have
characteristics identical with each other or with the
population; their means will be different.
Sampling error is the difference between the
sample mean and the population mean, due to the
chance selection of individuals.
Sampling error reduces as the sample size
increases.
Samples of >25 usually yield a normal sampling
distribution of the mean.

SAMPLING ERROR
Sample size
depends on the
margin of error
and the
confidence
levels that the
researcher is
prepared to
tolerate.

CALCULATING THE STANDARD

ERROR OF THE SAMPLE
Stage

One: Draw several number of samples of

equal size from a population, to create a sampling
distribution.
Stage Two: Calculate the Standard Error (SE) of
the mean:

SDs
SE
N

SDs = standard deviation of the sample (a measure

of dispersal around the mean)
N = the number in the sample

EXAMPLE OF STANDARD ERROR

If

SDs = 13.76 and N = 120

Then

The

SE

SDs

13.96 1.27
120
N

Standard Error (SE) is 1.27.

SAMPLE SIZE, CONFIDENCE

LEVELS AND SAMPLING ERROR
N

S (95%)

S (99%)

50

44

50

100

79

99

200

132

196

500

217

476

1,000

278

907

2,000

322

1,661

5,000

357

3,311

THE REPRESENTATIVENESS OF THE

SAMPLE
What

is being represented (e.g. groups,

variables, spread of population).
If the sample has unequal sub-groups, then it
may be necessary equalize the sample by
weighting, to represent more fairly the
population.

ACCESS TO THE SAMPLE

Is

access to the sample permitted,

practicable, realistic?
Who will give/withhold/deny permission to
access the sample?
Who are the gatekeepers?

SAMPLING STRATEGIES
Probability

sample
Non-probability sample

PROBABILITY SAMPLE
Every

member of the wider population has an

equal chance to be included; choice is made on
chance alone. The aim is for generalizability
and wide representation.
Less risk of bias in the sample.

RANDOM SAMPLE
Drawing

randomly from a list of the

population (e.g.: names from a hat, using a
matrix of random numbers).
The probability of a member of the population
being selected is unaffected by the selection
of other members of the population, i.e. each
selection is entirely independent of the next.

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Every nth person (e.g. every 4th person).
To find the frequency use the formula:

N
f
sn
where f = frequency interval;
N = the total number of the wider population;
sn = the required number in the sample.

 In

a company of 1,500 employees a sample

size of 306 is required (from tables of sample
size for random samples). The formula is:

1,500
f
4.9
306
This rounds to 5, i.e. every 5th person.

RANDOM STRATIFED SAMPLE

Stage

1: Identify those characteristics which

appear in the wider population which must also
appear in the sample, i.e. divide the wider
population into mutually exclusive homogeneous
groups.
Stage 2: Randomly sample within these groups,
the size of each group being determined by
judgement or tables of sample size.

THE PROBLEM OF STRATA

Whole company
English employees
Scottish employees
Welsh employees
American employees

N
1,000

S
278

Total
278

800
100
50
50

260
80
44
44

428

SCHOOLING
SUB-TOTAL SAMPLE SIZE
No schooling
35,020
380
Pre-primary
6,811
364
Primary incomplete
80,285
384
Primary complete
109,561
384
Junior secondary
94,491
384
Senior secondary
66,250
382
Tertiary, non-degree
7,481
367
Tertiary, degree
23,944
379
Special
360
186
Total
424,203
3,210
BUT . . . Total without strata
384

PROBLEMS OF STRATA
The greater the number of strata, the larger the
sample will be.
Therefore, keep to as few strata as s necessary.

CLUSTER SAMPLE
Sampling

within a particular cluster (e.g.

geographical cluster);
Useful where population is large and
widely dispersed.

STAGED (MULTI-STAGED) SAMPLE

1.

2.

3.
4.
5.

If the target population is 1,000 employees in nine

organizations, then the sample size is 278 from
the nine organizations.
Put the names of the nine organizations on a card
each and give each organization a number, then
place all the cards in a box.
Draw out the first card and put a tally mark by the
appropriate organizations on the list.
Return the card to the box.
Do this 278 times and then total the number of
employees required from each organization (the
number of tally marks for each organization).

Organization

Total

Required
number of
employees

30

21

45

12

54

23

16

43

34

278

Go to each organization and ask for the required

random number from each.

MULTI-PHASE SAMPLE
Change

the sampling strategy at each phase

of the research, different samples for different
stages of the research, e.g.:
Junior employees at stage one, middle
management at stage two, senior
management at stage 3 (determined by the
purposes of the research).

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLE
Members

of the wider population are

deliberately excluded. The aim is for the
sample to represent itself rather than to seek
generalizability.
Non-probability sampling can be of issues as
well as people.

CONVENIENCE SAMPLE
Opportunity

sample (often those to whom

there is easy access).

QUOTA SAMPLE
The

non-probability equivalent of stratified

sampling.
Seeks to represent significant characteristics
(strata) of the wider population and to
represent these in the proportions in which
they can be found in the wider population.

EXAMPLE OF A PROPORTIONATE/QUOTA
SAMPLE FROM A UNIVERSITY
Performing

arts:
Natural sciences:
Humanities:
Business & social sciences:

300 students
300 students
600 students
500 students

Proportions: 3: 3: 6: 5
Minimum required is 3 + 3 + 6 + 5 = 17

HOW TO OBTAIN A PROPORTIONATE

(QUOTA) SAMPLE
Stage

1: Identify those characteristics which

appear in the wider population which must
also appear in the sample, i.e. divide the
wider population into mutually exclusive
homogeneous groups, one row for each
characteristic.
Stage 2: Identify the frequencies and
proportions in which the selected
characteristics appear in the wider population
(as a percentage).

HOW TO OBTAIN A PROPORTIONATE

(QUOTA) SAMPLE
Stage

3: Ensure that the same percentages

of characteristics appear in the sample.
Stage 4: Calculate the totalled percentage
and divide it by the highest common factor of
the cells in that column.
Stage 5: Add together the totals for the
column to find out the total.

PURPOSIVE SAMPLE
Deliberately

chosen for specific purposes.

KINDS OF PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

Critical case sampling

Extreme case sampling
Deviant case sampling
Boosted sample
Negative case sampling
Maximum variation sampling
Typical case sampling
Intensity sampling

KINDS OF PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

Homogeneous sampling
Reputational case sampling
Revelatory case sampling
Politically important case sampling
Complete collection sampling
Theoretical sampling
Confirming and disconfirming case sampling

DIMENSIONAL SAMPLING
Identify

the group of factors (dimensions) to

be sampled, and obtain one respondent (or
more) for each group, i.e. a respondent who
carries more than one factor, e.g. a junior
employee who is a notnative English
speaker.

SNOWBALL SAMPLING
One

sample leads on to more of the same

kind of sample.

SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Person
1

RESEARCHER

Friend/contact 1
contacts his/her
own
friends/contacts/

RESEARCHER
HAS 3 CONTACTS

Friend/contact 2
contacts his/her
own
friends/contacts/

Friend/contact 3
contacts his/her
own
friends/contacts/

10

11

12

THE 3 CONTACTS EACH HAVE 3 CONTACTS

VOLUNTEER SAMPLING
Volunteers

may be well intentioned, but they

do not necessarily represent the wider
population.
Caution: people volunteer for different
motives, e.g.:
wanting to help a friend
interest in the research
wanting to benefit society
revenge on a particular
school or headteacher.

THEORETICAL SAMPLING
The

researcher must have sufficient data to

be able to generate and ground the theory in
the research context, i.e. to create theoretical
explanation of what is happening in the
situation, without having any data that do not
fit the theory.
The researcher proceeds in gathering more
and more data until the theory remains
unchanged, until no modifications to the
grounded theory are made in light of the
constant comparison method.

MIXED METHOD SAMPLING DESIGNS

Parallel

mixed methods sampling

Sequential mixed methods sampling
Multilevel mixed methods sampling
Stratified purposive sampling
Purposeful random sampling
Nested sampling designs

PLANNING A SAMPLING STRATEGY

Stage One: Decide whether you need a sample, or
whether it is possible to have the whole population.
Stage Two: Identify the population, its important
features (the sampling frame) and its size.
Stage Three: Identify the kind of sampling strategy
you require (e.g. which variant of probability, nonprobability, or mixed methods sample you require).
Stage Four: Ensure that access to the sample is
guaranteed. If not, be prepared to modify the
sampling strategy.

PLANNING A SAMPLING STRATEGY

Stage Five: For probability sampling, identify the
confidence level and confidence intervals that you
require. For non-probability sampling, identify the
people whom you require in the sample.
Stage Six: Calculate the numbers required in the
sample, allowing for non-response, incomplete or
spoiled responses, attrition and sample mortality.
Stage Seven: Decide how to gain and manage
access and contact.
Stage Eight: Be prepared to weight (adjust) the
data, once collected.