HVAC Systems Understanding

Table of Contents
the basis
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Introduction to HVAC Systems

HVAC System Types
HVAC Piping System
HVAC Air Distribution Equipments
Fans and Pumps
HVAC Instrumentation and Control
HVAC System Commissioning

Introduction to HVAC Systems

This article introduces the heating, ventilating and air-conditioning

(HVAC) systems. The primary function of HVAC systems is to provide
healthy and comfortable interior conditions for occupants; welldesigned, efficient systems do this with minimal non-renewable
energy and air, and water pollutant emissions.

Introduction to HVAC Systems

The purpose of HVAC design is both high indoor air quality and energy
efficiency. These dual considerations require an integrated design
approach. Rigs heating,
ventilation, and air conditioning
system (HVAC) creates a climate
that allows for maximum comfort by
compensating for changing climatic
conditions.

Though more costly to install and more complicated to operate, a chiller plant
offers a number of benefits over a large number of individual packaged
cooling units, including greater energy efficiency, better controllability,
cheaper overall maintenance, and longer life. Using a comprehensive
approach to building design, designers around the world have succeeded at
creating highly efficient air-conditioning systems that provide excellent
comfort at significant savings.

Introduction to HVAC Systems

Heating, ventilating and airconditioning (HVAC) systems

reduce the environmental
impact of rigs/buildings in several
key ways. The most important
function of a HVAC systems is
to provide the rig/buildings occupants
with healthy and comfortable interior
conditions. A carefully designed, efficient
system can do this with minimal nonrenewable energy and air and water pollutant emissions to minimize the
environmental impact.
Cooling equipment that avoids chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons (CFCs and HCFCs) eliminates a major cause of
damage to the ozone layer.

Introduction to HVAC Systems

Even the best HVAC equipment and systems cannot compensate for a
faulty rig design. Problems of this type cause inherently high cooling and
heating needs and consume unnecessary resources and should be
corrected if possible. Conservation of non-renewable energy through an
intelligent architectural design offers the greatest opportunity for savings.
The most important factors in these designs are careful control of solar gain,
while taking advantage of passive heating, daylighting, natural ventilation
and cooling. The critical factors in mechanical systems' energy consumption
- and capital cost - are reducing the cooling and heating loads they must
handle.

HVAC System Types

Types of System Designs - There are several major heating, ventilating, and air
conditioning system types in wide spread use today. These are air systems, hydronic
and steam systems, and unitary type systems. Most systems in use today fall into one of
these categories, or are a combination or variation of them. Each type of system has
advantages and disadvantages.

Air cooled

- Air cooled Chillers

Air Cooled Chiller Advantages

Lower installed cost

Quicker availability
No cooling tower or condenser pump required
Less maintenance
No mechanical room required

Water Cooled
- Sea Water cooled Chillers
- Fresh Water cooled Chillers

Water-Cooled Chiller advantages

Higher efficiency
Custom selection in larger sizes
Large tonnage capabilities
Indoor Chiller location
Longer life

Air Handling Systems

Purpose of an air handling system

Air Handling
System

Supply
Air

Room
With
Defined
Requirements

Outlet
Air

Objectives
In the following slides, we will study the components of
air handling systems in order to:
1.

Become familiar with the components

2.

Know their functions

3.

Become aware of possible problems

Main subsystems
Exhaust air treatment

Fresh air treatment

(make-up air)

Terminal air treatment

at production room level

Room/Cabin
Central air handling unit

Overview components
Exhaust Air Grille

Silence
r

Weather louvre

Flow rate controller

Fan

Control damper

Filter

Heater

+
Prefilter

Humidifier

Cooling
coil
with
Heating droplet
coil
separator

Secondary Filter

Re-circulated
air

Terminal filter

Production Room

Components (1)

Weather louvre

Silencer

Flow rate
controller
Control damper

To prevent insects, leaves, dirt and

rain from entering

To reduce noise caused by air

circulation
Automated adjustment of volume of
air (night and day, pressure control)
Fixed adjustment of volume of air

Components (2)
Heating unit

To heat the air to the proper

temperature

Cooling unit

To cool the air to the required

temperature or to remove moisture
from the air

To bring the air to the proper

humidity, if too low

To eliminate particles of predetermined dimensions and/or microorganisms

To transport the air

/dehumidifier
Humidifier

Filters

Ducts

Air types

Fresh air
(make-up air)

Supply
air

Production Room

Return air
(re-circulated)

Exhaust
air

Filter classes
Dust filters
Standard

Aerosol

Coarse

Fine

Dp > 10 m

10 m > Dp > 1 m

G1 - G4

F5 - F9
EN 779 Standard

HEPA

ULPA
Dp < 1 m

H 11 - 13

U 14- 17
EN 1822 Standard

HEPA or tertiaary filter

Primary panel
filter

Secondary
filter

Duct heaters

Room Heters

Silensers

Volume control
damper

Humid room air

Adsorber wheel

Regeneration air

Fire Dampers
Dry air

Humid room air

Air heater

De-humidification

AHU with fan

Variable Speed
Controller

Filter Pressure
Gauges

Regulation of room pressure pressure

differentials concept

Room pressure
gauges
Room pressure indication panel

Annex 1, 17.26

Pressure cascade injectables

Protection from micro-organisms and
particles

Room 1

Room 2

30 Pa

60 Pa

Room 3
45 Pa

A
LF

D
A ir L o c k
45 Pa

A ir L o c k
B

15 Pa
30 Pa

Passage

N o te : D i r e c ti o n o f d o o r o p e n i n g r e l a ti v e to r o o m p r e s s u r e

A ir
Lock

0 Pa

Pressure cascade solids

Protection from cross-contamination

R oom 1

R oom 2

Room 3

15 Pa

15 Pa

15 Pa

A ir L o c k

A ir L o c k
A ir
30 Pa

Passage

N o te : D i r e c ti o n o f d o o r o p e n i n g r e l a ti v e to r o o m p r e s s u r e

Lock
15 Pa

0 Pa

Fan Coil Unit

Self Contain Unit

HVAC Air Distribution Equipments

Diffusers

4 Way Diffusers

Two Way Diffusers

Round Diffusers

One Way Diffuser

Cabin Units

Return / Exhaust Grilles

Fans and Pumps

Contents
Fan Design
Fan Performance
Fan-duct Systems
Duct Construction
Air Duct Design

Fan Design
Common types of fans

Centrifugal fans: radial, forward curved, air

foil (backward curved), backward inclined,
tubular, roof ventilator
Axial fans: propeller, tube-axial, vane-axial

Fan arrangements

Motor location, air discharge orientation, drive

train type (direct drive or pulley drive)
Centrifugal: single width single inlet (SWSI),
double width double inlet (DWDI)

CENTRIFUGAL FANS

AXIAL FANS

Centrifugal and axial fan components

AXIAL FANS

Propeller

Tube-axial

Tube-vane

CENTRIFUGAL FANS

Tubular centrifugal fan

Centrifugal roof ventilator

(* Note the airflow paths and impeller design.)

Drive arrangements and motor positions

Single- and double-width centrifugal fans

Fan Performance
Major parameters

Fan volume flow rate (m3/s or l/s), Vf

Fan total pressure ptf, fan velocity pressure pvf
& fan static pressure psf (Pa)
Fan power & efficiency
Fan power or air power (W) = ptf x Vf
Fan power input on the fan shaft (brake horsepower),
Pf
Fan total efficiency: t = ptf x Vf / Pf

Combined aerodynamic, volumetric & mechanical

efficiencies

Fan static efficiency: s = psf x Vf / Pf

Air temp. increase through fan, Tf = ptf /(cpat)

Fan performance curves

Total pressure
Static pressure
Fan total efficiency
Fan static efficiency
Fan power input
Velocity pressure
Volume flow rate

Typical fan performance curve

Fan Performance

Fan Laws

Speed (n)
Volume flow (V)
Total pressure loss
( p )
Air density ()
For air systems that
are geometrically &
dynamically similar:
(D = impeller diameter)

c.f.: pump laws

CENTRIFUGAL FANS

Velocity triangle at the blade inlet and outlet of a centrifugal fan

Fan Performance
Major issues causing energy losses to a

centrifugal fan:

Circulatory flow between the blades

Air leakage at the inlet
Friction between fluid particles and the blade
Energy loss at the entrance
Partially filled passage

Operating characteristics for a backward-curved centrifugal fan

Total efficiency
curves for
centrifugal fans

Fan power curves for centrifugal fans with same impeller diameter

Fan pressure curves for centrifugal fans with same impeller diameter

AXIAL FANS

Velocity triangles for a vane-axial fan

Fan pressure curves for axial fans with same impeller diameter

Fan efficiency curves for axial fans with same impeller diameter

Fan power curves for axial fans with same impeller diameter

Performance
curves for
controllablepitch vane-axial
fans

Fan-duct Systems
Duct pressure changes (c.f. atm

pressure)

Static pressure (SP)

Velocity pressure (VP) = V2 / 2 g
Total pressure (TP) = SP + VP

Fan: a pumping device

Fan (total) pressure = pressure difference

between fan inlet and fan discharge
At fan suction/inlet, SP = negative (c.f.
atmospheric); at discharge, SP = positive

Fan-duct Systems
Pressure characteristics

SP and VP are mutually convertible (or)

TP always decreases in the direction of
airflow
For constant-area straight duct sections
Velocity and VP are constant
TP change = SP change

When duct cross-sectional areas are reduced

Velocity and VP increase

Absolute value of both TP and SP decrease
Dynamic losses from elbow, dampers, etc.

Fan-duct Systems
Fan-duct systems

Flow resistance
R, pressure drop p and
o

p R V

volume flow rate V

Duct sections in series: Rs

Duct sections in parallel:

R1 R2 Rn

1
1
1
1

Rp
R1
R2
Rn

Fan-duct Systems
Fan-duct systems

Terminology
Primary air (conditioned air or makeup air)
Secondary air (induced space air, plenum air, or
recirculating air)
Transfer air (indoor air that moves from an adjacent
area)

System curve: volume flow vs pressure loss

System operating point

Fan-duct Systems
System

effect pts

Its additional total pressure loss caused by

uneven or non-uniform velocity profile at the
fan inlet, or at duct fittings after fan outlet
Due to the actual inlet and outlet connections
as compared with the total pressure loss of the
fan test unit during laboratory ratings

Inlet

Outlet

Fan system operating point & system effect

Fan-duct Systems
Modulation of air systems

Constant volume system

Volume flow rate remains constant
Supply temperature is raised during part load

Variable-air-volume (VAV) system

Volume flow rate is reduced to match part load
operation
Modulation curve

Fan modulation curve

Fan-duct Systems
Fan modulation methods

Damper (vary the opening of the air flow

passage)
Waste energy

Inlet vanes (opening & angle of inlet vanes)

Low cost; less efficient than following types

Inlet cone (peripheral area of fan impeller)

Inexpensive; for backward curved centrifugal fan

Blade pitch (blade angle of axial fan)

Fan speed (using adjustable frequency drives)
Most energy-efficient; but usually cost more

Damper, inlet vanes & fan speed modulation

Inlet vane
modulation

Fan speed
modulation using
AC inverter

Fan-duct Systems

Fan surge (in centrifugal fan)

Occurs when air volume flow is not sufficient to

sustain the static pressure difference between
discharge & suction
Discharge pressure is reduced momentarily
Volume flow & pressure fluctuations
Create noise & vibration

Surge region: shall avoid operation in it

Fan stall (in axial fans)

When smooth air flow suddenly breaks & pressure

difference across the blades decreases
The fan loses pressure capability drastically

Stall and stall region of an axial fan

Fan-duct Systems
Fan selection

Select fan type + determine fan size

Important factors:

Pressure-volume flow operating characteristics

Fan capacity modulation
Fan efficiency
Sound power level
Airflow direction
Initial cost

Duct Construction
Types of air duct

Supply air duct

Return air duct
Outdoor air duct
Exhaust air

Duct sections

Header or main duct (trunk)

Branch duct or runout

Duct Construction
Duct systems

Max. pressure difference (between air inside

the duct and the ambient air)
125, 250, 500, 750, 1000, 1500, 2500 Pa

Commercial buildings
Low-pressure duct system: 500 Pa, max 12 m/s
Medium-pressure system: 500-1500 Pa, max 17.5
m/s

Residential buildings: 125 Pa or 250 Pa

Industrial duct system: P can be higher

Duct Construction
Duct material: e.g. UL (Underwriters

Laboratory) standard

Class 0: zero flame spread, zero smoke

developed
Iron, galvanized steel, aluminum, concrete,
masonry, clay tile

Class 1: flame spread 25, smoke developed

50
Fiberglass, many flexible ducts

Class 2: flame spread 50, smoke developed

100

Duct Construction
Shapes of air duct

Rectangular
More easily fabricated on site, air leakage

Round
Less fluid resistance, better rigidity/strength

Flat oval
Flexible
Multiple-ply polyester film w/ metal wire or strips

SMACNA (Sheet Metal and Air

Conditioning Contractors National

Association) standards

Rectangular duct

Flat oval duct

Round duct w/ spiral seam

Flexible duct

(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Transverse joint reinforcement

(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Duct Construction
Duct specification

Sheet gauge and thickness of duct material

Traverse joints & longitudinal seam
reinforcements
Duct hangers & their spacing
Tapes & adhesive closures
Fire spread and smoke developed
Site-fabricated or factory-/pre-fabricated

Duct Construction
Duct heat gain or loss

Temperature rise or drop

Duct insulation (mounted or inner-lined)
Reduce heat gain/loss, prevent condensation,
sound attentuation
Minimum & recommended thickness

See ASHRAE standard or local codes

Temperature rise curves

Depends on air velocity, duct dimensions &
insulation

Temperature rise from duct heat gain

(Source: Wang, S. K., 2001. Handbook of Air Conditioning and Refrigeration)

Duct Construction
Frictional losses

Darcey-Weisbach Equation
Hf = friction head loss, or pf = pressure loss

f = friction factor (dimensionless)

L = length of duct or pipe (m)
D = diameter of duct or pipe (m)
v = mean air velocity in duct (m/s)

 >

<
Mode of airflow when air passes over and around
surface protuberances of the duct wall

Duct Construction
Duct friction chart

Colebrook formula

Roughness

& temperature corrections

pf = Ksr KT Kelpf,c
Ksr = correction factor for surface roughness
KT = correction factor for air temperature
Kel = correction factor for elevation

Friction chart for round duct

Duct Construction
Circular equivalent

Hydraulic diameter, Dh = 4 A / P
A = area (mm2); P = perimeter (mm)

Rectangular duct:

Flat oval duct:

Duct Construction
Dynamic losses

Result from flow disturbances caused by ductmounted equipment and fittings

Change airflow paths direction and/or area
Flow separation & eddies/disturbances

In dynamic similarity (same Reynolds number

& geometrically similar duct fittings), dynamic
loss is proportional to their velocity pressure

Duct Construction
Local or dynamic loss coefficient

Ratio of total pressure loss to velocity

pressure

Duct Construction
Duct fittings

Elbows
Converging or diverging tees and wyes
Entrances and exits
Enlargements and contractions

Means to reduce dynamic losses

Turning angle, splitter vanes

ASHRAE duct fitting database

Fitting loss coefficients

Region of eddies and

turbulences in a round elbow

5-piece 90o round elbow

Rectangular elbow, smooth radius, 2 splitter vanes

Mitered elbow and its secondary flow

Airflow through a
rectangular converging
or diverging wye

Entrance

Exit

Abrupt enlargement

Sudden contraction

Duct Construction
Flow resistance,

Total pressure loss pt at a specific volume flow

2

pt R V

rate V

Rs R1 R2 Rn

Flow resistance in series:

Flow resistance
1 in parallel:
1
1

Rp

R1
R2
Rn

Total pressure loss and flow resistance of a round duct section

Flow resistance in series

Flow resistance in parallel

Flow resistance for a Y connection

Air Duct Design

Optimal air duct design

Optimal duct system layout, space available

Satisfactory system balance
Acceptable sound level
Optimum energy loss and initial cost
Install only necessary balancing devices
(dampers)
Fire codes, duct construction & insulation

Require comprehensive analysis & care for

different transport functions

Flow characteristics of a supply duct system

Air Duct Design

Design velocity

Constraints: space available, beam depth

Typical guidelines:
Main ducts: air flow usually 15 m/s; air flow noise
must be checked
With more demanding noise criteria (e.g. hotels),
max. air velocity: main duct 10-12.5 m/s, return
main duct 8 m/s, branch ducts 6 m/s

Face velocities for air-handling system

components

Air Duct Design

Reduce dynamic losses of the critical path

Maintain optimum air velocity through duct

fittings
Emphasize reduction of dynamic losses nearer
to the fan outlet or inlet (high air velocity)
Proper use of splitter vanes
Set 2 duct fittings as far apart as possible

Air duct leakage

Duct leakage classification

AISI, SMACNA, ASHRAE standards

Air Duct Design

Fire protection

Duct material selection

Vertical ducts (using masonry, concrete or clay)
When ducts pass through floors & walls
Use of fire dampers
Filling the gaps between ducts & bldg structure
Duct systems for industrial applications

Any other fire precautions?

Air Duct Design

Design procedure (computer-aided or manual)

Verify local codes & material availability

Preliminary duct layout
Divide into consecutive duct sections
Minimise local loss coefficients of duct fittings
Select duct sizing methods
Critical total pressure loss of tentative critical path
Size branch ducts & balance total pressure at
junctions
Adjust supply flow rates according to duct heat gain
Resize duct sections, recalculate & balance parallel
paths
Check sound level & add necessary attenuation

Air Duct Design

Duct layout

Symmetric layout is easier to balance

Smaller main duct & shorter design path

For VAV systems, duct looping allows feed

from opposite direction
Optimise transporting capacity (balance points
often follow the suns position)
Result in smaller main duct

Compare alternative layouts & reduce fittings

For exposed ducts, appearance & integration
with the structure is important

Typical supply duct system with symmetric layout & looping

Air Duct Design

Duct liner

Lined internally on inner surface of duct wall

Mainly used for noise attenuation & insulation
Fiberglass blanket or boards

Duct cleaning

Prevent accumulation of dirt & debris

Agitation device to loosen the dirt & debris
Duct vacuum to extract loosened debris
Sealing of access openings

Duct breakout noise

HVAC Piping System

HVAC Instrumentation and Control

HVAC System Commissioning

The key elements of commissioning include:

Installation checks. Check installed equipment to ensure that all associated

components and accessories are in place.

Operational checks. Verify and document that systems are performing as expected,
and that all sensors and other system control devices are properly calibrated.

Documentation. Confirm that all required documentation has been provided, such as a
statement of the design intent and operating protocols for all building systems.

O&M manuals and training. Prepare comprehensive operation and maintenance

(O&M) manuals, and provide training for rig operations staff.

Ongoing monitoring. Conduct periodic monitoring after the school is occupied to

ensure that equipment and systems continue to perform according to design intent.

Correctly implemented, commissioning is extremely cost-effective, and should improve

the delivery process, increase systems reliability, improve energy performance, ensure
good indoor environmental quality, and improve operation and maintenance of the
facility.