Lecture 3-10

Fundamental Parameters of
Antenna
Prepared By:
Engr. Nuzhat Madina

02/23/15

Parameters of Antenna are:

Beam Area
Beam width
Half power beam

width
Full Null beam width
Polarization
Radiation Intensity
Beam Efficiency
Antenna field zones
Transmission
formula
Directivity
2

Directive Gain
Radiation Resistance
Radiation efficiency
Resolution
Antenna aperture

physical and effective

Effective height
Transmission loss as a
function of frequency
Antenna temperature
and signal to noise ratio
02/23/15

Co-ordinate system

02/23/15

02/23/15

Radiation Pattern
A mathematical or graphical representation

of the radiation properties of antenna such

as
Amplitude
Phase
Polarization, etc

As a function of the angular space co-ordinates

is called as radiation pattern.

02/23/15

FIELD PATTERN: The plot of field either

electric |E| or magnetic |H| on a linear scale

is called as field pattern.
POWER PATTERN : A plot of the power
( proportional to either |E|2 or magnetic |H|2
) on linear or decibel (dB) scale .

02/23/15

02/23/15

02/23/15

Directional pattern of Horn

antenna
9

02/23/15

Omni-directional pattern

10

02/23/15

Isotropic Radiators
Independent of the use of a given antenna for transmitting

or receiving, an important characteristic of this antenna is

the gain. Some antennas are highly directional; that is,
more energy is propagated in certain directions than in
others. The ratio between the amount of energy
propagated in these directions compared to the energy that
would be propagated if the antenna were not directional
(Isotropic Radiation) is known as its gain. When a
transmitting antenna with a certain gain is used as a
receiving antenna, it will also have the same gain for
receiving.

Isotropic Radiators
An isotropic radiator is a theoretical point

source of electromagnetic or sound waves

which radiates the same intensity of radiation
in all directions. It has no preferred direction
of radiation. It radiates uniformly in all
directions over a sphere centred on the
source. Isotropic radiators are used as
reference radiators with which other sources
are compared.

Radiation pattern
Most radiators emit (radiate) stronger radiation in one

direction than in another. A radiator such as this is referred

to as anisotropic. However, a standard method allows the
positions around a source to be marked so that one
radiation pattern can easily be compared with another.
The energy radiated from an antenna forms a field having a
definite radiation pattern. A radiation pattern is a way of
plotting the radiated energy from an antenna. This energy
is measured at various angles at a constant distance from
the antenna. The shape of this pattern depends on the type
of antenna used.

Radiation pattern
To plot this pattern, two different types of graphs,

rectangular-and polar-coordinate graphs are used. The

polar-coordinated graph has proved to be of great use in
studying radiation patterns. In the polar-coordinate graph,
points are located by projection along a rotating axis
(radius) to an intersection with one of several concentric,
equally-spaced circles. The polar-coordinate graph of the
measured radiation is shown in Figure1.

Radiation Lobes
The main beam (or main lobe ) is the region around the

direction of maximum radiation (usually the region that is

within 3dB of the peak of the main beam). The main beam
in Figure1 is northbound.
The sidelobes are smaller beams that are away from the
main beam. These sidelobes are usually radiation in
undesired directions which can never be completely
eliminated. The sidelobe level (or sidelobe ratio) is an
important parameter used to characterize radiation
patterns. It is the maximum value of the sidelobes away
from the main beam and is expressed in Decibels. One
sidelobe is called backlobe. This is the portion of radiation
pattern that is directed opposing the main beam direction.

Major and Side Lobes

(Minor Lobes)
The pattern shown in the upper figures has

radiation concentrated in several lobes. The

radiation intensity in one lobe is considerably
stronger than in the other. The strongest lobe is
called major lobe; the others are (minor) side
lobes. Since the complex radiation patterns
associated with arrays frequently contain several
lobes of varying intensity, you should learn to use
appropriate terminology. In general, major lobes
are those in which the greatest amount of
radiation occurs. Side or minor lobes are those in
which the radiation intensity is least.

Beam Width
The angular range of the antenna pattern in which at

least half of the maximum power is still emitted is

described as a Beam With. Bordering points of this
major lobe are therefore the points at which the field
strength has fallen in the room around 3dB regarding
the maximum field strength. This angle is then
described as beam width or aperture angle or half
power (- 3 dB) angle - with notation (also ). The
beamwidth is exactly the angle between the 2red
marked directions in the upper pictures. The angle
can be determined in the horizontal plane (with
notation AZ) as well as in the vertical plane (with
notation EL).

Front-to-Back Ratio
The front-to-back ratio of an antenna is the

proportion of energy radiated in the principal

direction of radiation to the energy radiated
in the opposite direction. Ahigh front-to-back
ratio is desirable because this means that a
minimum amount of energy is radiated in the
undesired direction.

RECIPROCITY
RECIPROCITY is the ability to use the same antenna for

both transmitting and receiving.

The electrical characteristics of an antenna apply
equally, regardless of whether you use the antenna for
transmitting or receiving.
The more efficient an antenna is for transmitting a
certain frequency, the more efficient it will be as a
receiving antenna for the same frequency.
This is illustrated by figure 2-1, view A. When the
antenna is used for transmitting, maximum radiation
occurs at right angles to its axis. When the same
antenna is used for receiving (view B), its best
reception is along the same path; that is, at right
angles to the axis of the antenna.

RECIPROCITY

Radiation Pattern
A radiation pattern defines the variation of the power

radiated by an antenna as a function of the direction away

from the antenna. This power variation as a function of the
arrival angle is observed in the antenna's far field.
As an example, consider the 3-dimensional radiation
pattern in Figure 1, plotted in decibels (dB) .

Radiation Pattern
This is an example of a donut shaped or toroidal radiation

pattern. In this case, along the z-axis, which would

correspond to the radiation directly overhead the antenna,
there is very little power transmitted. In the x-y plane
(perpendicular to the z-axis), the radiation is maximum.
These plots are useful for visualizing which directions the
antenna radiates.

Radiation Pattern
A pattern is "isotropic" if the radiation pattern is the same

in all directions. Antennas with isotropic radiation patterns

don't exist in practice, but are sometimes discussed as a
means of comparison with real antennas.
Some antennas may also be described as "omnidirectional",
which for an actual antenna means that the radiation
pattern is isotropic in a single plane
Examples of omnidirectional antennas include the dipole
antenna and the slot antenna.

Radiation Pattern
The third category of antennas are "directional", which do

not have a symmetry in the radiation pattern. These

antennas typically have a single peak direction in the
radiation pattern; this is the direction where the bulk of the
radiated power travels. These antennas are very common;
examples of antennas with highly directional radiation
patterns include the dish antenna

Field Regions
The fields surrounding an antenna are divided into 3

principle regions:
Reactive Near Field
Radiating Near Field or Fresnel Region
Far Field or Fraunhofer Region
The far field region is the most important, as this
determines the antenna's radiation pattern. Also,
antennas are used to communicate wirelessly from long
distances, so this is the region of operation for most
antennas. We will start with this region.

Far Field (Fraunhofer)

Region
The far field is the region far from the antenna, as you

might suspect. In this region, the radiation pattern does

not change shape with distance (although the fields still
die off as 1/R, the power density dies off as 1/R^2). Also,
this region is dominated by radiated fields, with the Eand H-fields orthogonal to each other and the direction
of propagation as with plane waves.
If the maximum linear dimension of an antenna is D,
then the following 3 conditions must all be satisfied to be
in the far field region:

Far Field (Fraunhofer)

Region

Far Field (Fraunhofer)

Region

The first and second equation above ensure that the

power radiated in a given direction from distinct parts of

the antenna are approximately parallel (see Figure 1).
This helps ensure the fields in the far-field region behave
like plane waves. Note that >> means "much much
greater than" and is typically assumed satisfied if the left
side is 10 times larger than the right side.

Figure 1. The Rays from any Point on the Antenna

are Approximately Parallel in the Far Field.

Far Field (Fraunhofer)

Region

Finally, where does the third far-field equation come

from? Near a radiating antenna, there are reactive fields

(see reactive near field region, below), that typically
have the E-fields and H-fields die off with distance as
1/R2 and1/R3 . The third equation above ensures that
these near fields are gone, and we are left with the
radiating fields, which fall off with distance as 1/R.
The far-field region is sometimes referred to as the
Fraunhofer region, a carryover term from optics.

Reactive Near Field

Region

In the immediate vicinity of the antenna, we have the

reactive near field. In this region, the fields are

predominately reactive fields, which means the E- and Hfields are out of phase by 90 degrees to each other
(recall that for propagating or radiating fields, the fields
are orthogonal (perpendicular) but are in phase).
The boundary of this region is commonly given as:

Radiating Near Field

(Fresnel) Region
The radiating near field or Fresnel region is the region

between the near and far fields. In this region, the reactive
fields are not dominate; the radiating fields begin to
emerge. However, unlike the Far Field region, here the
shape of the radiation pattern may vary appreciably with
distance.
The region is commonly given by:

Note that depending on the values of R and the wavelength,

this field may or may not exist.

Finally, the above can be summarized via the following
diagram:

Figure 2. Illustration of the Field Regions for an

Antenna of Maximum Linear Dimension D.

Field Regions

Types :
1. Reactive Near-Field
2. Radiating Near-Field :

Fresnel
3. Far- field : Fraunhofer

34

02/23/15

Field Regions
Reactive Field
Phases of electric and magnetic field are often near

quadrature.

Highly reactive wave impedance

High content of non propagating stored energy near antenna

Radiating Near-Field: Fresnel

Fields are predominant in phase
Fields do not yet display a spherical wave front; thus

pattern varies with distance.

Regions where near field measurements are made.
Far- Field : Fraunhofer
Field exist spherical wave front (

); thus pattern

ideally does not vary with distance

Electric and magnetic fields are in phase
Wave impedance is, ideally, real
Power predominantly real, propagating energy
35

02/23/15

Evolution of pattern from near

to Far Field

Pattern of
Paraboloid
Reflector

36

02/23/15

Radian & Steradian

37

02/23/15

Beam Area
The beam area or beam solid angle or A of an

antenna is given by the integral of the normalized

power pattern over sphere (4 sr).

The Beam Area

of an antenna can often be

describe approximately in terms of the angles
subtended by the half-power points of the main
lobe in the two principal planes.

Are the HPBW in the two principal planes, minor

lobes being neglected.

38

02/23/15

Radiation intensity
The power radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle

is called the radiation intensity U (watts/steradian or

/square degree).
The normalized power pattern can also be expressed in
terms of this parameter as the ratio of the radiation
intensity
as a function of angle, to its maximum value.

Whereas Poynting vector S depends on the distance from

the antenna (varying inversely as a square of distance),

the radiation intensity U is independent of the distance,
assuming in both cases that we are in the far field of the
antenna.

39

02/23/15

Beamwidth
The angular separation between two identical points on

opposite side
beamwidth.

of

pattern

maximum

is

called

as

Importance:
It is very important figure of merit
It is often used as a trade off between it and side lobe

level.

As beam width increases

side lobe level decreases.

& vice versa.

It is also used to describe the resolution capabilities of

the antenna to distinguish between two adjacent

radiating sources or radar targets.
The most important resolution criterion states that
the Resolution capability of an antenna to distinguish
between two sources is equal to half of the first-null
beamwidth.
2 sources separated by angular distance

an antenna with a uniform distribution can be resolved.

40

of

02/23/15

Beamwidth
Half Power Beamwidth (HPBW):
In a plane containing the direction of the

maximum beam, the angle between the two

directions in which the radiation intensity is
value of beam is called as HPBW.
First Null Beamwidth (FNBW):
The angular separation between the first

nulls of the patterns is referred to as the

FNBW.

41

02/23/15

Polarization
Polarization is the direction of the electric field and is

the same as the physical attitude of the antenna

A vertical antenna will transmit a vertically polarized

wave
The receive and transmit antennas need to possess the

same polarization

42

02/23/15

Beam Efficiency
The (total) beam area A (or beam solid

angle) consists of the main beam area (or

solid angle) M plus the minor lobe area m.

The ratio of the main beam area to the (total)

beam area
efficiency.

is

called

the

(main)

beam

The ratio of the minor lobe area to the (total)

beam area is called the Stray Factor.

It follows that
43

02/23/15

Directivity
The directivity of an antenna is equal to the ratio of the

maximum power density to its average value over a sphere

as observed in the far field of an antenna.
Directivity from pattern :
The directivity is also the ratio of the area of a sphere (4

sr) to the beam area A of the antenna.

Directivity from beam area:

The smaller the beam area, the larger the directivity D.

44

02/23/15

For an antenna that

radiates over only half

a sphere the beam
area A = 2 sr,

dBi = decibels over

Radiation pattern of dipole =0.5

45

isotropic.
For, Ideal isotropic
antenna

02/23/15

GAIN
Used as a figure of merit.
The ability of an antenna or antenna system to

concentrate the radiated power in a given direction or

conversely to absorb effectively the incident power
from that direction is specified by various antenna
terms i.e. antenna gain or simply gain or directive
gain or power gain or directivity.
Definition of GAIN is:
Gain of antenna without involving the antenna
efficiency is defined as:

Reference antenna may be an isotropic antenna or

lossless antenna.
Often gain of an antenna is expressed in decibel ratio
i.e.
46

02/23/15

Directive Gain
The

extent to which a practical antenna

concentrates its radiated energy relative to that
of some standard antenna is termed as directive
gain.
Directive gain is the ratio of the radiation intensity
in that direction to the average radiated power.

Directive Gain solely depends on the distribution

of radiated power in space. It does not depend

upon the power input to the antenna, antenna
losses or the power consumed in a terminating
resistance.

47

02/23/15

Comparison between Directivity and

Gain
The ratio of the gain to the directivity is the

antenna efficiency factor.

G=kD.
k = efficiency factor (0 k 1).

Dimensionless.
If an antenna has not any losses like ohmic,

dielectric mismatch i.e. 100% efficient,

then directivity and gain are same.
For an antenna with losses, gain will be less
than directivity by factor which corresponds
to efficiency.
48

02/23/15

Resolution

Resolution of antenna may be defined as equal to the

half the beam width between first null (FNBW)/2.

When the antenna beam maximum is aligned with one
satellite, the first null coincides with the adjacent
satellite.
Half the beam width between first nulls is approximately
equal to the half-power beam width,

49

02/23/15

Antenna Apertures

Total power absorbed

Ap = physical aperture

As, at sidewalls E=0. Thus, the effective

aperture Ae < Ap of horn.

50

02/23/15

Effective height
Effective height may be defined as the ratio of the

induced voltage to the incident field

Represents the effectiveness of an antenna as radiator

or collector of electromagnetic wave energy.

It indicates how for an antenna is effective in
transmitting or receiving the electromagnetic wave
energy.

51

02/23/15

Radiation Resistance
The radiation resistance (R r) is thus defined as

that fictitious resistance which, when substituted

in series with the antenna will consume the same
power as is actually radiated.
The radiation resistance represents,
Total energy radiating form transmitting antenna
Current flowing in the antenna

The value of radiation resistance depends on

Configuration of antenna
The point where radiation resistance is considered
Location of antenna w.r.t. grounds and other objects,

and
Ratio of length of diameter of the conductor used.
Corona discharge a luminous discharge round the
surface of antenna due to ionization of air etc.
52

02/23/15

Antenna
Apertures

53

Physical aperture
Effective aperture

02/23/15

Antenna Apertures
For horn, parabolic reflector, mattress multi

element antennas,
For short dipole antenna
For ideal size when there is no thermal
losses and field is in phase
Relation between directivity and aperture is

Absorption ratio

54

02/23/15

Self & Mutual Impedance Of

Antenna
In general, any antenna is usually fed with a

transmission line. So it is important to know the

impedance of the antenna at the terminal where
transmission line is connected. Such impedance is very
important in the analysis of the antenna.
In general any antenna can be used either as
transmitting antenna or as receiving antenna .
The transmitter and receiver are used along with
transmitting antenna and receiving antenna
respectively .
So in order to obtain maximum power available from
transmitter or to extract maximum received power from
antenna at receiver, the impedance of the antenna must
be known
55

02/23/15

56

02/23/15

57

02/23/15

58

02/23/15

59

02/23/15

60

02/23/15

61

02/23/15

62

02/23/15

63

02/23/15

64

02/23/15

POLARIZATION
Energy from an antenna is radiated in the form of

an expanding sphere.
A small section of this sphere is called a wavefront.
positioned perpendicular to the direction of the
radiation field (fig. 2-2).
Within this wavefront. all energy is in phase.
Usually, all points on the wavefront are an equal
distance from the antenna.
The farther from the antenna the wave is, the less
curved it appears. At a considerable distance, the
wavefront can be considered as a plane surface at
right angles to the direction of propagation.

POLARIZATION

POLARIZATION
The radiation field is made up of magnetic and

electric lines of force that are always at right

angles to each other.
Most electromagnetic fields in space are said to be
linearly polarized. The direction of polarization is
the direction of the electric vector. That is, if the
electric lines of force (E lines) are horizontal, the
wave is said to be horizontally polarized (fig. 2-2),
and if the E lines are vertical, the wave is said to
be vertically polarized. Since the electric field is
parallel to the axis of the dipole, the antenna is in
the plane of polarization.

POLARIZATION
A horizontally placed antenna produces a

horizontally polarized wave, and a vertically

placed antenna produces a vertically
polarized wave.
In general, the polarization of a wave does
not change over short distances. Therefore,
transmitting and receiving antennas are
oriented alike, especially if they are separated
by short distances.

POLARIZATION
Over long distances, polarization changes. The

change is usually small at low frequencies, but

quite drastic at high frequencies. (For radar
transmissions, a received signal is actually a
wave reflected from an object. Since signal
polarization varies with the type of object, no set
position of the receiving antenna is correct for all
returning signals). Where separate antennas are
used for transmitting and receiving, the
receiving antenna is generally polarized in the
same direction as the transmitting antenna.

POLARIZATION
When the transmitting antenna is close to the

ground, it should be polarized vertically,

because vertically polarized waves produce a
greater signal strength along the earths
surface. On the other hand, when the
transmitting antenna is high above the
ground, it should be horizontally polarized to
get the greatest signal strength possible to
the earths surface.

Transmission between two

antennas

The Friis Transmission Equation is used to

calculate the power received from one

antenna (with gainG1), when transmitted
from another antenna (with gainG2),
separated by a distanceR, and operating at
frequencyfor wavelength lambda.
To begin the derivation of the Friis
Equation, consider two antennas in free
space (no obstructions nearby) separated
by a distanceR:
71

02/23/15

Transmission between two

antennas

Assume that PTWatts of total power are delivered to the

transmit antenna. For the moment, assume that the

transmit antenna is omni directional, lossless, and that
the receive antenna is in the far field of the transmit
antenna. Then the power densityp(in Watts per square
meter) of the plane wave incident on the receive
antenna a distanceRfrom the transmit antenna is given
by:
If the transmit antenna has anantenna gain G Tin the
direction of the receive antenna given by , then the
power density equation above becomes:
The gain term factors in the directionality and losses of a
real antenna. Assume now that the receive antenna has
an effective aperture given by
72

02/23/15

Transmission between two

antennas

Then the power received by this antenna (P R) is given by:

Since the effective aperture for any antenna can also be

expressed as:
The resulting received power can be written as:
This is known as theFriis Transmission Formula. It relates
the free space path loss, antenna gains and wavelength to
the received and transmit powers. This is one of the
fundamental equations in antenna theory, and should be
remembered (as well as the derivation above).
Another useful form of the Friis Transmission Equation is
given in Equation [2]. Since wavelength and frequencyfare
related by the speed of lightc, we have the Friis
Transmission Formula in terms of frequency:
73

02/23/15