Semiconductor

Strain Gages
Brandon Withers
ECE 5320 Mechatronics
Assignment #1

Outline

Major Applications
Strain Theory
Strain Gage Factors
Unbonded and Bonded Strain Gages
Semiconductor Strain Gages
Principle of Measurement and Measurement
Circuits
Strain Gage Specifications for the HBM SLB700A/06

Reference List
W. Tompkins, J. Webster, Interfacing Sensors To The IBM PC. Englewood Cliffs,
NJ.:Prentice Hall Inc., 1988.
National Instruments, (2004, Feb. 21). Measuring Strain with Strain Gauges
(2004) [Online]. Available:
http://zone.ni.com/devzone/conceptd.nsf/webmain/C83E9B93DE714DB0862568
6600704DB1?OpenDocument
Omega Engineering, (2004, Feb. 21). The Strain Gage (2003) [Online].
Available: http://www.omega.com/literature/transactions/volume3/strain.html
HBM, (2004, Feb. 21). SLB-700A/06 Strain Transducer (2003) [Online].
Available: http://www.ae.utexas.edu/courses/ase389/midterm/larry/sircxsar.htm

To Explore Further

Strain Gage Tutorials

-- http://www.omega.com/techref/strain-gage.html
-- http://www.vishay.com/company/brands/measurementsgroup/guide/indexes/tn_index.htm

Manufacturers of Strain Gages and Accessories

-- http://www.hbm.com/en/
-- http://www.smdsensors.com/
-- http://www.omega.com
-- http://www.vishay.com

Useful Site With Many Strain Gage Links

-- http://users.telenet.be/educypedia/electronics/sensorsdis.htm

Major Applications

Force, Torque and Pressure Transducers

Load Cells in Commercial Scales, Tank and
Vessel Weighing
Bathroom and Kitchen Scales
Stress Analysis Tests
Measurements of deflection angles of control
surfaces (helicopter blades, wing flaps,
elevators, etc.)

Strain Theory

Measuring Strain with Strain Gauges

Strain is the amount of deformation of a body

due to an applied force or in other words strain is
the fractional change in length shown in the
figure above. Strain can be positive (tensile) or
negative (compressive).

Strain Theory (cont.)

For a wire of cross-sectional area A, resistivity , and length L the
resistance is given by

L
A

When the wire is stretched, the cross-sectional area A is reduced, which

causes the total wire resistance to increase. In addition, since the lattice
structure is altered by the strain, the resistivity of the material may also
change, and this, in general, causes the resistance to increase further.
Both effects are included in the following equation:

R (1 2)L

R
L

R = fractional resistance change

R
= Poissons ratio
L = fractional change in length
L
= fractional change in resistivity

Strain Theory (cont.)

To provide a means of comparing the performance of
various gage materials, the gage factor, or strain
sensitivity, of a gage is defined as

R / R

G
1 2
L / L
L / L
Higher gage factors are generally more desirable
because the higher the gage factor the higher the
resolution of the strain gage.

Strain Gage Factors

The Mechatronics Handbook

Semiconductor materials such as Silicon and

Germanium are used for strain gages
because of their high gage factors.

Unbonded and Bonded Strain

Gages
The unbonded strain gage
consists of a wire stretched
between two points in an
insulating medium such as air.
Four gages are normally
connected in a Wheatstone bridge
circuit and arranged so that two
gages are lengthened and two
shortened by the displacement.

A bonded strain-gage element,

consisting of a metallic wire, etched
foil, vacuum-deposited film, or
semiconductor bar, is cemented to the
strained surface.

The Mechatronics Handbook

Semiconductor Strain Gages

Strain-gage technology advanced in the 1960s with the introduction of the

semiconductor strain-gage elements
Silicon gages are formed from single-crystal silicon whose orientation and
doping are the most important design parameters. The gage factor depends
on the resistivity (determined by the doping) and the crystal orientation.
Bonded semiconductor gages are made by slicing sections from specially
processed silicon crystals and are available in both n and p types. The high
gage factor is accompanied by high-temperature sensitivity, nonlinearity,
and mounting difficulties.
Diffused semiconductor gages utilize the diffusion process employed in
integrated-circuit manufacture. This type of construction may allow lower
manufacturing costs in some designs, since a large number of devices can
be made on a single silicon wafer. The deviation from linearity is
approximately 1%

Ideal Strain Gage vs. Diffused

Strain Gage
Ideal Strain Gage Properties

Small in size and mass

Low in cost
Accurate and repeatable
Easily attached
Perfect output signal
Infinite pressure range
Highly sensitive to strain but
insensitive to ambient or
process temperature variations

Diffused Strain Gage Properties

Small in size and mass

Low in cost

Accurate and repeatable

Tricky to attach

High output signal

Wide pressure range

Highly sensitive to strain but limited
to moderate-temperature
applications and requires
temperature compensation

Principle of Measurement
Mechanical loading produces a change of length in the
measurement object, which is conveyed to the strain
gauge. Because there is a change in length, the electrical
resistance of the applied strain gauge also changes in
proportion to the strain. If there is excitation voltage, the
circuit supplies an output signal proportional to the change
in resistance and therefore also proportional to the change
in length. A carrier frequency or DC amplifier suitable for
strain gauges enables measurement signal evaluation to
continue.

Measurement Circuits
(a) Common Wheatstone bridge circuit, null
when R1/R4=R2/R3
(b) All resistances equal but one is variable by
a factor, (1+x), where x is a fractional
deviation around zero, as a function of
strain. Sufficiently linear for small values of
x.
(c) Output doubles if two identical variable
elements can be used
(d) Two variable resistors increase while two
decrease. Commonly used with two
identical two-element strain gages attached
to opposite faces of a thin beam to measure
bending. The output is four times the output
for a single-element bridge, and it is linear
with x.
(e) Uses a zero-centered potentiometer to
constitute two adjacent arms.
(f)

The Mechatronics Handbook

Op amp forces the bridge to be balanced. It

has good linearity and very low output
impedance, thus making the output
measurement easier and more accurate.

Strain Gage Specifications

HBM SLB-700A/06
Key Features

For Monitoring strain in statically and

dynamically loaded units such as
cranes, presses and roll stands
Simply bolted into place
Stainless steel
Protected from harmful environmental
effects
Inexpensive
Strain gauge full bridge

SLB-700A/06 Strain Transducer

HBM SLB-700A/06
Specifications
Type

SLB700A/06

Nominal strain

m/m

500

Nominal sensitivity

mV/V

1.5 "0.15

Restoring force

approx. 3110

Zero point deviation

Temperature effect on the sensitivity, per 10 K

0.2

Temperature effect on the zero point, per 10 K

0.5

Compensated temperature range

10...+40

Input resistance

> 1000

Output resistance

1000 "3

Nominal range of the excitation voltage

2...15

Max. operating strain

150

Breaking strain

300

mm

approx. 0.038

mm

approx. 3

kg

0.16

Isolation resistance

Nominal displacement
Cable length
Cable diameter
Weight (complete with 6 m cable)

Degree of protection acc. to EN 60 529

IP65

SLB-700A/06 Strain Transducer

HBM SLB-700A/06
Specifications

SLB-700A/06 Strain Transducer

HBM SLB-700A/06
Mounting
The SLB700A strain transducer is attached to the measurement object by
means of four normal M6 hexagon socket screws (e.g. DIN 912). We
recommend screws of resistance class 12.9, which should be tightened in a
sequence of diagonal opposites, using a tightening torque of 16 Nm.
Alternatively, use screws of resistance class 8.8 and a tightening torque of
8 Nm. The strain transducer must not be mounted in the central, offset area
and it must be installed free from distortion.

SLB-700A/06 Strain Transducer