Aperture 2K9 10

Aperture Antennas
Aperture antennas constitute a large class of antennas,

which emit EM waves through an opening (or aperture).
These antennas have close analogs in acoustics: the
megaphone and the parabolic microphone. The pupil of the
human eye is a typical aperture receiver for optical
radiation. At radio and microwave frequencies, horns,
waveguide apertures and reflectors are examples of
aperture antennas.
Aperture antennas are commonly used at UHF and above as
their gain increases as f2 (approximately). For an efficient
and highly directive aperture antenna, its area should be
comparable or larger than 2. Hence, these antennas are
impractical at low frequencies.
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Radiating Systems for RF Communications
Another positive feature of the aperture antennas is their

near-real valued input impedance and geometry compatibility
with waveguide feeds.
The radiation characteristics of wire antennas can be
determined from the current distribution on the wire.
If the current distribution is not known, alternate methods
are necessary to compute the radiation characteristics e.g.
from the fields on or in the vicinity of the antenna.
One such technique is the Field Equivalence Principle.
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Uniqueness theorem
A solution is said to be unique if it is the only one possible
among a given class of solutions.
The EM field in a given region V is uniquely defined
if:
a. all sources are given;
b. either the tangential E components or the
tangential H components are specified at the
boundary S.
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Equivalence principle
The equivalence principle follows from the uniqueness
theorem. It allows for building simpler problems.
As long as the equivalent problem preserves the boundary
conditions of the original problem for the field at S, it is
going to produce only one possible solution for the region
outside S.
Through equivalence principle, the fields outside an
imaginary closed surface are obtained by placing over the
closed surface suitable electric and magnetic current
densities which satisfy the boundary conditions.
The current densities are chosen so that the fields inside
the closed surface are zero and outside they are equal to
the fields produced by the actual sources.
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V2
S
E1,H1
V1
E1,H1
J1
1,1
M1
1,1
Original problem
The primary task is to replace the original problem by an

equivalent problem which yields the same fields E1 and H1
outside S (within V2).
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V2
S
E1,H1
V1
E,H
1,1
Ms
1,1
Js
r
r r
M s n E1 E
r
r
r
J s n H1 H
Equivalent problem
The original sources J1 and M1 are removed, and assume there exist
fields E and H inside S and fields E1 and H1 outside of S.
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For this, the fields must satisfy the boundary conditions on

tangential electric and magnetic fields components. Hence
on imaginary surface there must exist equivalent sources:
r
r
r
J s n H1 H
r
r r
M s n E1 E
These current densities are said to be equivalent only

within V2 as they produce same fields outside.
Since the fields E and H within S are not of interest, they
can be assumed to be zero:
r
r
r
r
J s n H1 H |Hr 0 n H1
r
r r
r
M s n E1 E |Er 0 n E1
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Loves Equivalence
Principle
We can apply Loves equivalence principle in three different ways

We can assume that the boundary S is a perfect electric
conductor. This eliminates the surface electric currents,
i.e., Js=0, and leaves just surface magnetic currents Ms,
which radiate in the presence of a perfect electric surface.
V2
S
E1,H1
V1
E,H=0
Electric conductor
r
r
M s n E1
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1,1
r
r
J s n H1 0
We can assume that the boundary S is a perfect magnetic

conductor. This eliminates the surface magnetic currents, i.e.
Ms=0, and leaves just surface electric currents Js, which
radiate in the presence of a perfect magnetic surface.
V2
S
E1,H1
V1
E,H=0
Magnetic conductor 1,1
r
r
M s n E1 0
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r
r
J s n H1
Make no assumptions about the materials inside S, and

define both Js and Ms currents, which are radiating in free
space (no fictitious conductors behind them). It can be
shown that these equivalent currents create zero fields
inside S.
All three approaches lead to the same field solution

according to the uniqueness theorem.
The first two approaches are not very accurate in the general
case of curvilinear boundary surface S. However, in the case
of flat infinite planes (walls), the image theory can be used
to reduce the problem to an open one.
Image theory can be successfully applied to curved surfaces
provided the curvatures radius is large compared to the
wavelength.
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r
r
M s n E1
r
Ms
r
r
M s n E1
Equivalent problem
- Electric Wall
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r
r
M s 2n E1
Equivalent problem
- images
11
Example: A waveguide aperture is mounted on an infinite

ground plane. Assuming that the tangential component of
the electric field over the aperture is Ea. Find an equivalent
problem that will yield the same fields E, H radiated by the
aperture to the right side of the interface.
S
n
,
r
Ea
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12
Solution:
S
S
n
, ,
r
Js
r
Ms 0
r
Js
r
r
M s n Ea
r
Js
r
Ms 0
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S
n
, ,
,
r
Js 0
r
Ms 0
r
r
r
J
0
s
r M s n Ea
r
(Image)
M s n Ea
S
n
,
r
Js 0
r
Ms 0
r
J
0
s
r
r
M s n Ea
r
Js 0
r
Ms 0
, ,
r
Js 0
r
Ms 0
r
J
s 0
r
r
M s 2n Ea
r
Js 0
r
Ms 0
r
Js 0
r
Ms 0
13
Radiation Equations
R ; r r 'cos
R; r
x,y,z on
S
is the angle between r and r

Primed coordinates: sources
Unprimed coordinates: observation point
r
r e jkR
A
J
dv '
4 V
R
r
r e jkR
F
M
dv '
4 V
R
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14
r
r e jkR
e jkr r
A
Js
ds ' ;
N
4 S
R
4 r
r
r e jkR
e jkr r
F
Ms
ds ' ;
L
4 S
R
4 r
r
r jkr 'cos
N J s e
ds '
S
r
r jkr 'cos
L M s e
ds '
S
The far-zone fields and vector potentials are related as:
r far
E A j A A
r far
H F j F F
Since
r far
r far r
EF H F r
r far
E
r far
1 r far r
H A EA r
j A F A F
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Er ; H r ; 0
jke jkr
E ;
L N ; H
4 r
jke jkr
E ;
L N ; H
4 r
k 2 2
N J x cos cos J y cos sin J z sin e jkr 'cos ds '

S
N J x sin J y cos e jkr 'cos ds '

S
L M x cos cos M y cos sin M z sin e jkr 'cos ds '

S
L M x sin M y cos e jkr 'cos ds '

S
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Rectangular apertures in different planes

(Example: y-z plane)
Nonzero components of Js and Ms are:

Jy, Jz, My Mz
r
r 'cos r 'gar
a y y ' a z z ' g a x sin cos a y sin sin a z cos

y 'sin sin z 'cos
ds ' dy ' dz '
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Uniform distribution on an infinite ground plane

Find the far fields radiated by a rectangular aperture on an
infinite ground plane with following field over the opening:
r
Ea a y E0
a 2 x ' a 2
b 2 y ' b 2
Fields radiated by the aperture:
Er 0 H r
abkE0 e jkr
E j
2 r
abkE0 e jkr
E j
2 r
X
ka
sin cos
2
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sin X sin Y
X
Y
sin
sin X sin Y
Y
X
kb
Y sin sin
2
cos cos
H
H
e x
e dx
ka
X sin cos
2
kb
Y sin sin
2
x
18
The total-field amplitude pattern is, therefore,

sin
sin X sin Y
2
X sin Y
2
cos
sin
Y
X
X
Y
E sin 2 cos 2 cos 2
The E-plane (yz-plane: =/2) pattern
abkE0 e jkr
E j
2 r
kb

sin
sin
2

kb
sin
Function of
dimension b
(along y-axis)
The H-plane (xz-plane: =0) pattern
abkE0 e
E j
2 r
jkr
cos
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ka

sin
sin
2

ka
sin
Function of
dimension a
(along x-axis)
19
a 3
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b 2
20
sin
sin X sin Y
2
X sin Y
2
E sin cos cos
1 cos sin
X
Y
X
Y
2
For electrically large apertures, the main beam is narrow

and the square-root term is negligible, i.e., it is roughly
equal to 1 for all observation angles within the main beam.
That is why, in the theory of large arrays, it is assumed that
the amplitude pattern of a rectangular aperture is
sin X sin Y
X
Y
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H-plane pattern for a=20
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E-plane pattern for b=10
22
First Null beamwidth for E-plane pattern:

For nulls to occur:
kb
sin | n n
2
2n
1 n
n sin 1
57.3sin
deg
kb
b
Beamwidth between nulls:
n
n 114.6sin
deg
b
1
n 1, 2,3,....
n=1 gives FNBW
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Half-power beamwidth (E-plane):

Half-power point:
kb

sin
sin
2
1
kb
2
sin
kb
sin | h 1.391
2
0.443
deg
b
h 57.3sin 1
Half-power beamwidth:
0.443
h 114.6sin
deg
b
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Maximum of first sidelobe:
kb
sin | s 4.494
2
1.43
s 57.3sin
deg
b
1
Total beamwidth between first sidelobes:
1.43
s 114.6sin
deg
b
1
Maximum at the first sidelobe:
E s
sin 4.494
4.494
0.217 13.26dB
When evaluating side-lobe levels and beamwidths in the Hplane, one has to include the cos factor, too.
The larger the aperture, the less important this factor is.
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Directivity:
4 U max 4
D0
2 ab
Prad
4
4
D0 2 Ap 2 Aem
The physical (Ap) and the effective (Aem) areas of a

uniform aperture are equal.
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The tapered rectangular aperture

on a ground plane
The uniform rectangular aperture has the maximum possible
effective area (for an aperture-type antenna) equal to its
physical area
it has the highest possible directivity for all constantphase excitations of a rectangular aperture.
The uniform distribution excitation produces the highest SLL
of all constant-phase excitations of a rectangular aperture.
A reduction of the SLL can be achieved by tapering the
equivalent source distribution from a maximum at the
apertures center to zero values at its edges.
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One practical aperture of tapered source distribution is the

open rectangular waveguide. The dominant TE10 mode has the
following distribution:
r

Ea a y E0 cos x'
a
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a 2 x ' a 2
b 2 y ' b 2
28
Fields radiated by the aperture:
Er 0 H r
abkE0 e jkr
E j
sin
2
2 r
cos X
abkE0 e jkr
E j
cos cos
2
2 r
ka
X sin cos
2
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sin Y
H
Y
2

cos X
sin Y
H
Y
kb
Y sin sin
2
29
The E-plane (yz-plane: =/2) pattern
kb
sin
sin
2
E n
kb
sin
2
The H-plane (xz-plane: =0) pattern
E n cos
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ka
sin
sin
2
2
ka

sin
2
2
30
H-PLANE PATTERN UNIFORM VS. TAPERED ILLUMINATION (a = 3):
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Directivity:
4
4
D0 0.81 2 Ap 2 Aem
Aem 0.81Ap
In general,
Aem ap Ap
0 ap 1
Aperture efficiency
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Example: Consider an aperture in an infinitely conducting

ground plane having a length a and width b. The aperture field
has a uniform amplitude but a 180 phase difference in the
two halves of the aperture as shown below:
Find the far field of the antenna applying the radiation equation
of a rectangular aperture.
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2a z E0 a y
r
Ms
2a z E0 a y
0.5b y 0.5b
0.5b y 0.5b
r 'cos x 'sin cos y 'sin sin
N N 0
b 2
L cos cos
0.5a x 0
0 x 0.5a
b 2
a 2
2 E0 e
jkr 'cos
2E e
dx ' dy '
a 2
L 2 E0 cos cos b
kb

sin sin
2

kb
sin sin
sin
a 2
sin 2 X 2
sin Y
L j 2 E0 ab
cos cos
Y
X 2
sin 2 X 2
sin Y
L j 2 E0 ab
sin
Y
X 2
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dx ' dy'
a 2
jkr 'cos
jkx 'sin cos
dx '
jkx 'sin cos
dx '
e x
e dx
ka
X sin cos
2
kb
Y sin sin
2
x
34
jke jkr
E
L
4 r
jke jkr
E
L
4 r
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Example (Problem 12.22 Balanis): A rectangular aperture with

the dimensions a=/2 and b=/4 and is mounted on an infinite
ground plane. What are the corresponding directivities (in dB)
when the aperture has:
i) a triangular electric field distribution and an aperture
efficiency of 75%,
ii) a cosine-square electric field distribution and an aperture
efficiency of 66%?
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Example: A rectangular aperture, of dimensions a and b, is

mounted on an infinite ground plane, as shown in the figure.
Assuming the tangential field over the aperture given by:
r
Ea a z E0
a 2 y ' a 2
b 2 z ' b 2
Find the far-zone spherical electric and magnetic field

components radiated by the aperture.
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Horn Antennas
Horn antennas are popular in the microwave band (above 1 GHz).

Horns provide high gain, low VSWR (with waveguide feeds),
relatively wide bandwidth, and they are not difficult to make.
There are three basic types of rectangular horns.
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The horns can be also flared exponentially. This provides

better matching in a broad frequency band, but is
technologically more difficult and expensive.
The rectangular horns are ideally suited for rectangular
waveguide feeders.
The horn acts as a gradual transition from a waveguide
mode to a free-space mode of the EM wave.
When the feeder is a cylindrical waveguide, the antenna is
usually a conical horn.
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Why is it necessary to consider the horns separately instead

of applying the theory of waveguide aperture antennas
directly to the aperture of the horn?
It is because the so-called phase error occurs due to the
difference between the length from the center of the feeder
to the center of the horn aperture and the length from the
center of the feeder to the horn edge.
This complicates the analysis, and makes the uniform-phase
aperture results invalid for the horn apertures.
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E-Plane sectoral Horn
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lE=e
R0=R=1
E=E
B=b1
Ez ' Ex ' H y ' 0
E1
jk ( y ')
J y cos x' e
a
jk ( y ')
J y E1 cos x' e
a
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E y '( x ', y ') E1 cos
a
x' e
j ky '2 2 1

j ky '2
H z '( x ', y ') jE1
sin a x' e
ka
E1
j ky '2 2 1
H x '( x ', y ') cos x' e
a
1 e cos e
2 1
42

E j
E j
a k 1 E1e jkr
8r
a k 1 E1e jkr
8r
k x k sin cos
j k y2 1 2 k
j k y2 1
e
k a
cos x
2
sin 1 cos
2k
cos 1 cos
k a
cos x
2
k a 2
x
2
F t , t
1 2
2

k a 2
x
F t , t
1 2
2
k y k sin sin
F t1 , t2 C t2 C t1 j S t2 S t1
t1
1
k 1
kb1
y 1
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t2
1 kb1
k
y
1
k 1 2
43
E-Plane sectoral Horn
E-Plane ( 2)
Er E 0
a k 1 E1e jkr
E j
8r
t1'
t2'
j k 1 sin 2 2
1 cos F
t1' , t2'
b1
sin
b1
1 sin
2
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H-Plane ( 0 )
Er E 0
a k 1 E1e
E j
8r
F t " , t "
1 2
2
2
ka

sin

2
2
jkr
1 cos
t1"
t2"
k
1
ka
cos
sin
2
b1
b1

2
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The magnitude of the normalized pattern, excluding the

factor 1 cos , can be written as:
E n F t1' , t2' C t2' C t1' j S t2' S t1'
t1'
b1
sin
b12
2
81
1 81
1
2
4 b1
1
2 s 1
4
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b1

sin
b1

sin
b12
s
81
48
t2'
k b1
1 sin
1 2
b12
2
81
1 81
1
2
4 b1
1
2 s 1
4
b1

sin
b1

sin
For a given value of s , the normalized field can be plotted

as a function of b sin .
1
These plots are usually referred to as universal curves.
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From the universal curves, the E-plane pattern of any Eplane sectoral horn can be obtained.
First determine the value of s. For that value of s , the field
strength (in dB) as a function of b1 sin is obtained
from the following figure. Finally, the value of 1 cos ,
normalized to 0 dB and written as 20 log10 1 cos 2
,
is added to that number to get the required field strength.
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Directivity of E-plane sectoral Horn:

4 U max 64a 1 2
DE
Prad
b1
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b1
2
S
21
b1
2
1
52
If the values of b1 , which correspond to the

maximum directivities are plotted versus their
corresponding values of 1 , it can be shown that
each optimum directivity occurs when
b1 ;
2b1
The corresponding value of s is:
1
s
4
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H-Plane Sectoral Horn
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Aperture Fields:
E x' H y' 0
E y'
jk x '
x ' E2 cos x' e
a1
jk x '
E2
x ' cos x' e
a1
1 x '2
x '
2 h cos h
2 2
H x'
Note: The aperture fields for E-plane sectoral horn

were functions of x and y, whereas for H-plane
sectoral horn, they are functions of x only
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Radiated Fields: Over the aperture the equivalent

current densities are
Jx Jz M y M z 0
jk x '
E2
Jy
cos
x' e
a1
jk x '
M x E2 cos
x' e
a1
Note: The equivalent current densities for E-plane
sectoral horn and H-plane sectoral horns are same
except the complex exponential term and the constant.
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Radiated Fields
From the radiation equations for aperture, we have
N J x cos cos J y cos sin J z sin e jkr 'cos ds '

S
So, in the present case this becomes,
N J y cos sin e jkr 'cos ds '

S
For aperture in the XY plane,
r 'cos x 'sin cos y 'sin sin

ds ' dx ' dy '
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Hence,
E2
N
cos sin I1I 2
kb

sin
sin
sin
b 2

I1 e jky 'sin sin dy ' b
kb sin sin
b 2

2

a 2
I2
a 2
cos
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jk x ' x 'sin cos

x' e
dx '
58
Finally,
b 2 cos sin sin Y jf1

jf 2
N E2
e F t1 ', t2 ' e F t1 ", t2 "
2 k
F t1 , t2 C t2 C t1 j S t2 S t1
k x '2 2
f1
2k
1
t1 '
k 2
k x "2 2
f2
2k
ka1
k
'
x 2
kb
sin sin
2
ka1
1
t2 '
k
'
x
2
k 2
2
ka1
ka1
1
k
"
t
"
k
"
x
2
2
x
2
k x ' k sin cos

k x " k sin cos
a
a
1
t1 "
k 2
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Similarly N , L , L can be found.
b 2 cos sin sin Y jf1

jf 2
N E2
e F t1 ', t2 ' e F t1 ", t2 "
2 k
N E2
b 2 cos
2 k

L E2
b 2 cos cos sin Y jf1
e F t1 ', t2 ' e jf 2 F t1 ", t2 "
2 k
b 2 sin
L E2
2 k

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sin Y jf1
e F t1 ', t2 ' e jf 2 F t1 ", t2 "
sin Y jf1
jf 2
e F t1 ', t2 ' e F t1 ", t2 "
60
The far-zone electric field components can then be

found out:
Er ; 0
ke jkr
E j
L N
4 r
ke jkr
E j
L N
4 r
Er 0
b k 2 e jkr
E jE2
8
r
sin Y jf1
jf 2
sin 1 cos
e F t1 ', t2 ' e F t1 ", t2 "
b k 2 e jkr
E jE2
8
r
sin Y jf1
jf 2
cos 1 cos
e F t1 ', t2 ' e F t1 ", t2 "
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The Electric Field in the E-Plane 2 (y-z plane)
Er E 0
b k 2 e jkr
E jE2
8
r
sin Y jf1
jf 2
1 cos
e F t1 ', t2 ' e F t1 ", t2 "
kb
Y sin
2
kx '
a1
kx "
a1
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The Electric Field in the H-Plane
0 (x-z plane)
Er E 0
b k 2 e jkr
E jE2
8
r
1 cos e jf1 F t1 ', t2 ' e jf 2 F t1 ", t2 "
k x ' k sin
a1
k x " k sin
a1
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The Directivity of a H-plane sectoral Horn
4 b 2
DH
C u C v
a1
1
u
2
1
v
S u S v
2
a1
a1
2
2
a1
a1
2
The Directivity is optimum when
a1 3 2
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Pyramidal Horn
Most widely used horn.
Flared in both directions.
Radiation characteristics
are combination of the Eand H-plane sectoral
horns.
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The tangential components of the E- and H-fields over the

aperture of the horn are approximated by:
j
E y ' x ', y ' E0 cos
x' e
a1
j
E0
H x ' x ', y ' cos
x' e
a1
k x '2 2 y '2 1
The equivalent current densities (approximated):
j
E0
J y x ', y ' cos
x' e
a1
j
M x x ', y ' E0 cos
x' e
a1
k x '2 2 y '2 1 2
k x '2 2 y '2 1 2
k x '2 2 y '2 1 2
We have cosinusoidal amplitude distribution in the x

direction and quadratic phase variations in both x and y
directions.
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One can derive the following expressions from the current

densities:
E
E
N 0 cos sin I1 I 2
N 0 cos I1I 2
L E0 cos cos I1 I 2
L E0 sin I1 I 2
I1
jk
cos x' e
2
a
a 2
1 2 j k x '2 2
e
2 k
e
j k x "2 2 2 k
x '2 2 2 x 'sin cos
2k
C t ' C t '
2
1
C t " C t "
2
1
b 2 jk y '2 2 1 y 'sin sin
e
b 2
I2
1 j k y 2 1
e
k
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2k
dx '
j S t2 ' S t 1 '
j S t2 " S t1 "
dy '
C t2 C t1
j S t2 S t1
68
Far-zone E-field components are:

Er 0
kE0 e jkr
ke jkr
L N j
sin 1 cos I1I 2
E j
4 r
4 r
kE0 e jkr
ke jkr
L N j
cos 1 cos I1I 2
E j
4 r
4 r
The principal E-plane pattern 2 of a pyramidal horn,

aside from a normalization factor, is identical to the E-plane
pattern of an E-plane sectoral horn.
The principal H-plane pattern 0 of a pyramidal horn,
aside from a normalization factor, is identical to the H-plane
pattern of an H-plane sectoral horn.
Hence, the pattern is very narrow in both the principal planes.
CRL 715 2009-10
69
3-D Field Pattern of a Pyramidal Horn
The maximum radiation is

not necessarily directed
along its axis, because
the phase error taper at
the aperture is such that
the rays coming from
different parts of the
aperture towards the axis
are not in phase and do
not add constructively.
CRL 715 2009-10
70
To physically construct a pyramidal horn, the

dimension pe and ph should be equal:
2 1
pe b1 b e
4
b1

1
h
ph a1 a

4
a1
12
12
The method outlined above gives accurate patterns for

angular regions near the main lobe and its closest minor
lobes. The accurately predict the field intensity in the minor
lobes, diffraction techniques (accounting for diffraction near
the aperture edges) are utilized. Diffraction becomes
dominant in regions where the radiation is of very low
intensity.
CRL 715 2009-10
71
Co- and Cross-Polarization
The patterns that are plotted represent the main

polarization of the field radiated by the antenna. This is
called co-polarized pattern.
Ideally the radiated field has no orthogonal (to the main
polarization) component (cross-polarized), provided the
antenna is symmetrical and is excited in the dominant
mode.
In practice, because of nonsymmetries, defects in
construction or excitation of higher order modes, all
antennas have cross-polarized components (usually of very
low intensity).
For good designs, cross-polarized components should be at
least 30 dB below the co-polarized.
CRL 715 2009-10
72
Directivity of a Pyramidal Horn

2
Dp
DE DH
32ab
2
64a 1 2
b1
b1
DE
S
C
b1
2
21
1
4 b 2
2
S u S v
DH
C u C v
a1
u
v
CRL 715 2009-10
2
1
2
2
a1
a1
2
2
a1
a1
2
73

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Aperture Antennas

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Make no assumptions about the materials inside S, and

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Example: A waveguide aperture is mounted on an infinite

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N J x cos cos J y cos sin J z sin e jkr 'cos ds '

N J x sin J y cos e jkr 'cos ds '

L M x cos cos M y cos sin M z sin e jkr 'cos ds '

L M x sin M y cos e jkr 'cos ds '

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Rectangular apertures in different planes

Nonzero components of Js and Ms are:

a y y ' a z z ' g a x sin cos a y sin sin a z cos

ds ' dy ' dz '

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Uniform distribution on an infinite ground plane

Fields radiated by the aperture:

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The total-field amplitude pattern is, therefore,

E sin 2 cos 2 cos 2

The E-plane (yz-plane: =/2) pattern

The H-plane (xz-plane: =0) pattern

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