Geomorphology

3 Theories

Continenta
l drift

Sea-floor
spreading

Plate
tectonic
theory

Continental drift theory

Super continent - Pangaea

Ocean Panthalasa
During Mid- Mesozoic, Pangaea broke
up and drifted apart
Continental crust (SIAL rocks) float
over Oceanic crust (SIMA rocks)
Driving force?

Continental Drift theory

Zig-saw fit

Similarity of rocks

Continental drift theory

Fossil evidences

Palaeo-climatic
evidences

Convection cells
Arthur Holmes:
Convection current
theory
Convection cells
force behind drifting
of continents

3 Theories

Continenta
l drift

Sea-floor
spreading

Plate
tectonic
theory

Sea-floor mapping
During 1940s
and 1950s
Diversity of
ocean-floor
Submarine
hills guoyts
MOR Trench

Ocean floor mapping

Questions:
1) Ocean crust
not older than
mid-Mesozoic
2) Age increase
away from MOR
3) Sea-mounts
deformed at
trenches

Sea floor spreading Theory

1960s Harry Hass and Dietz answered

question regarding ocean mapping
using convection theory
revealed mystery of mid-oceanic
ridge and trenches

Mid- Oceanic Ridge

MOR Mid Oceanic Ridge


Rising
limb
of
MOR Mid Oceanic Ridge
current breaks the
Ocean crust
Basaltic eruption
Accumulation of
lava ridge =>
MOR
New Oceanic crust
Divergent limb
expansion of ocean
crust

Trenches

MOR - Trench
At trench Ocean
floor destroyed
melted in mantle
Oceanic crust
heavier than
continental crust
Ocean floor act like
conveyor belt
Ocean floor cyclic
process 300 ml

Mariana trench

Q. In which one of the following

oceans the Diamantina Trench is
located?
a) Pacific Ocean
b) Atlantic Ocean
c) Indian Ocean
d) Arctic Ocean
Ans. C)

Question
UPSC
Prelims
2006

Diamantine trench

Palaeo-magentism
Magnetism of rocks
along MOR
Magnetometer
-Magnetic parallel
stripes normal and
reverse magnetic
profile
1st Carlsberg ridge
Indian ocean

Geomagnetism

Palaeo-magentism
Vine and mattheus
Molten lava get
polarity
geomagnetic field of
that period -Solidify
Ocean floor
magnetic tape

Palaeo-magnetism
conclusion
1) Periodic reversal of magnetic field of the
earth
2) Rate of sea-floor spreading decided by age +
distance between two equal magnetic stripes
Atlantic 1.0 cm/ year
Indian 1.5 cm/year
Pacific 6.0 cm/year

3 Theories

Continenta
l drift

Sea-floor
spreading

Plate
tectonic
theory

Plate tectonic Theory

Unanswered questions
Formation of fold mountains?
Reason for earth quake?
Reason for volcanism on land?

Plate tectonic theory

Work of many scientists from different

discipline
Came out in 1960s
Based on 2 scientific evidences
1) sea-floor spreading
2) Palaeo-magnetism
The most latest and accepted theory

Plates
Crust and upper part of
mantle => lithosphere
Asthenosphere = unique
mechanical rigidity,
semi-molten, plastic
Lithosphere float over
Asthenosphere
Lithosphere is not
continuous, broken,
known as plates

plates
J.T Wilson termed
Plate (litho,
100km)
3 types of plates:
Entirely oceanic,
entirely continental
and both continental
and oceanic
6 major and 20
minor plates

Plates of the world

Chemical composition of Interior

Inner core= Fe, Ni

Outer core = Fe, Ni + silica
Mantle = Olivine
Oceans = basalt
Continents = granite and andesite

Location
of rocks

Example

Property

Mantle

Olivine

highly
fluid
Heaviest
Fluid
Heavy
less
mobile
Lighter
least
mobile

Oceanic Basalt
crust
Continen Andesite
tal crust
Continen Granite
tal crust

geomorph
Fundament
al
Rocks

Burning and Melting of rocks

Olivine
Basalt
Andesite
Granite

Plate Interactions

Divergent Boundary
Convergent Boundary
Transverse Boundary

Divergent Plate Boundary

Ascending limb of
convection current
below O /C
Below ocean MOR
Below continent
rift valley, nascent
sea

Divergent Plate Boundary

Oceanic crust MOR

Continental crust

Phases of Divergent continental crust

Rift
valley

Nascent
sea

Ocean

Phases of Divergent continental crust

The Great African rift valley

Red sea Nascent sea

Africa after 10 ml years

Knot of Plates

Knot of plates

Lakes and Nile river -African rift valley

African lakes

River Nile

Grand Renaissance dam, Ethiopia

From 2011 on Blue Nile
Africas largest hydroelectric
dam
Egypt to lose water share +
hydro electricity from Aswan
Egypt showed reservation
but Ethiopia did not pay heed
Egypt ready for military
intervention
British treaties between
Egypt and Sudan

Locations in Africa
Nubian desert
Eastern desert
Namib desert
Lake Victoria
Lake Malawi
Lake Turkana
Lake chad
River Congo

River Niger
Mt. Kilimanjaro
Katanga plateau
Grain coast
Ivory coast
Gold coast
Slave coast
Darfur

Q. Which one of the following

lakes form an international
boundary between Tanzania and
Uganda?
a) Chad
b) Malawi
c) Victoria
d) Zambezi

Question
UPSC
Prelims
2000

Convergent Plate Boundary

O-O
Island
arc

O-C

C-C

Volcanic
mountai
ns

Fold
mountai
ns

O-O convergence

Island Arc
Islands in S E
Asia
Indo- Austral
plate and
Eurasian plate
movement
Volcano + EQ

Q. Explain the formation of

thousands of islands in
Indonesia and Philippines
archipelago? (10)

Question
UPSC
Mains
2014

Islands of South East Asia

Islands of Indian Ocean

Convergent Plate Boundary

O-O
Island
arc

O-C

C-C

Volcanic
mountai
ns

Fold
mountai
ns

O-C convergence

Volcanic Mountains
EX.
Andes ,
Rockies, Atlas
mountain
From Andes
=> andesitic
rocks
Volcano + EQ

Andes mountain range

Location near Andes

Atacama desert
Bolivian plateau
Lake Titicaca
Mt. Aconcagua (highest peak)
Mt. Cotopaxi
Mt. Chimbrazo
Lake Maracaibo

Rockies mountain range

Grand canyon Colorado river

Locations near Rockies

Columbia -snake plateau

Grand canyon /Colorado plateau
Death valley
Great salt lake
Mt.Logan (highest peak of rockies)
Mt. Mckinley (highest peak of N.
America) in Alaskan range

Q. Where is the volcanic

mountain. Mount. St. Helens is
located?
a) Chile
b) Japan
c) Philippines
d) USA
Ans. D)

Question
UPSC
Prelims
2005

Q. why are the worlds fold

mountain systems located along
the margins of continents?
Bring out the association
between global distribution of
fold -mountains and
earthquakes and volcanoes (10)

Question
UPSC
Mains
2014

Convergent Plate Boundary

O-O
Island
arc

O-C

C-C

Volcanic
mountai
ns

Fold
mountai
ns

C-C convergence

Continental Mountains
Not located on
coast
No volcanism
But powerful
EQ
Ex.
Himalayas,
Alps, Urals

Himalayan formation
1. O-C
convergence

2. C-C
convergence

Karakoram range

Alps mountain range

Physical map of Europe

Bosporus strait

Cities of Europe
City
Paris
Frankfurt
Venice
Vienna, Budapest,
Belgrade
Kiev
Berlin

River
Seine
Rhine
Po
Danube
Dniester
Elbe

Locations near Alps

Rivers: Rhone, Danube and Po

Black forest mountains
mountains: Pyrenees, Apennines
Islands of Mediterranean sea:
Balearic, Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily,
Malta, Cyprus
Straits: Bonifacio, Messina, Marmara
Sea: Tyrrhenian, Adriatic, Ionian and

Transform Boundary
When two plates slip
pass-off each other
No mountains but
seismic activity
San Andreas fault in
California, USA

San Andreas fault

Plate movement

San Andreas fault,

USA

Meteorite Impact theory

Early atmosphere
thin layer of H, He
Numerous
meteorites attack
on earth
Break the surface
Underlying lava
eruption
First oceanic crust
formed

3 Theories

Continenta
l drift

Sea-floor
spreading

Plate
tectonic
theory

Q. Between India and East Asia,

the navigation time and
distance can be greatly reduced
by which of the following?
a) Deepening Malacca strait
between Indonesia and
Malaysia
b) Opening a new canal across
Kra Isthmus between gulf of
Siam and Andaman sea

Question
UPSC
Prelims
2011

Landforms on earth

Mountains
Plateaus
Plains

Types of mountains

mountain
s

Fold
mountain
s
Block
mountain
s

Fold mountains

Mountains created due to

convergent boundaries of both
1) O-C (Rockies, Andes)
2) C-C (Himalayas, Alps)
Compressive forces of plates
)Youngest mountains on earth
)True mountains

Geomorph
Fold
mountains

Characteristics of Fold mountains

1)Extensive mountain chain

3) Great heights
4) Formed along unstable parts of the
earth
5) Sedimentary deposits of marine
origin (C-C)

Phases of mountain building

Pull of descending
limb of convection
current
great pressure of
compressive force
exerted by the
convection cells

Geo-syncline
Elongated, narrow
depression on
continental margins
Here sediments from
both land and ocean
accumulate
Under intense
pressure, sediments
of geo-syncline
folded

C-C collision
Sediments from
continental crusts
of both plates +
geo-syncline
folded
Because of
sediments of
geo-syncline
marine origin

Fold mountains of the world

List of mountains to locate

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)

Alaska range
Rockies
Andes
Atlas mountains
Pyrenees
Caucasus
Taurus
Elburz and Zagros

9) Hindukush
10) Kirthar range
11) Kunlun Shan
12) Urals mountains
13) Appalachian
mountains
14) Great Dividing
Range

Importance of mountain building process

understanding of the origin and evolution of
earths crust.
At the time of the formation of the earth
crust, first basaltic crust of ocean - breaking
and melting - a lighter continental crust
developed.
collide with one another = a larger land
mass.
The joints = fold-mountains.

Types of mountains

mountain
s

Fold
mountain
s
Block
mountain
s

Block mountains formation

Block mountains formation

Block mountains
Fault-block mt.
Due to forces within
interior of the earth
Uplifted part = horst
depressed part =
Grabben
Horst => block
mountains
Grabben => rift valley

Example of block mountains

Europe

India

Plateaus
Raised land during
Meaning:
mountains
building process
Table land,
Eroded mountains
upland, higher
than surrounding Eroded due to
areas
glaciers
Deposition from
lava, wind

Types of plateau
Intermontane
plateau

Bolivia plateau
Tibetan plateau
Columbia plateau
Colorado plateau
Anatolia Plateau
(Turkey)

Continental
plateau

Deccan plateau
Katanga plateau
Ozark plateau
(USA)
Ethiopian
highland

Types of Plateau

Glacial plateau

Lava plateau

Columbia-snake
Grahwal plateau plateau (USA)
Deccan Plateau
Laurentian
Shan plateau
plateau
(Canada)
(Myanmar)

Katanga Plateau
Origin of River
Congo and Zambezi
Dense equatorial
forest
Known for resources
- Gold, diamonds,
Copper

Batholith
Granite
Less mobile,
cannot move
upward
Backbone of
fold
mountains

Plains
Meaning
Flat areas with low
heights
Best for human
habitation
Most populated
areas of the world
alluvial plains of
rivers

Depositional plains
- Rivers
- Sea (sub-merged
coast)
Erosional plains
- Erosion of plateau

Important river basins of the world

Asia

Europ Afric
e
a

Indus

Danube Nile

Ganga
Brahmaputra

Rhine

Yangtze (China)
Rhone
Hwang He (China) Po
Ob- Irtysh (Russia) Don
Mekong (SE Asia)

South North America

Ameri
ca

Amazon Mississippi
Missouri
Congo Parana- Colorado
Paragua
y
Niger
St. Lawrence
Zambe
Yukon
zi
Orang
Mackenzie
e

Yangtze river, China

Important locations
Navigable river 35% of Chinas population
Sichuan basin rice cultivation
Shanghai biggest port of China
Wuhan Iron and steel
Nanjing textile, iron and steel
Chengdu oil and gas
Three gorge dam
Yun ho canal connect Yangtze with Hwang He

Euphrates- Tigris river, Iraq

Locations near Euphrates-Tigris

Lake Van,
Lake Urmia
Important centers in Iraq:
Baghdad, Mosul, Kirkuk, Al Basra

Amazon river, Brazil

Locations near Amazon river

Largest, 2nd longest river

Selvas equatorial rain forest
Tin, rubber in Selvas
Sertao ranching region
Petroleum reserve at the mouth
Manaus Iron ore, navigable
plateau of Mato Grasso gold reserve

Mississippi , USA

Locations near Mississippi basin

Temperate grasslands Prairies

Wheat, corn and cotton cultivation
Important cites:
Kansas agriculture
St. Pittsburg iron and steel
New Orleans port, ship building

Murray-Darling basin, Australia

Location near Murray-darling basin

Temperate grassland downs

Wheat cultivation
Sheep rearing ,Animal husbandry
Wool and dairy production

Continental drift theory -> seafloor spreading theory -> plate

tectonic theory
Landforms on earth
Mountains (fold and block)
Plateaus
Plains