Chalmers University of Technology

Lecture3

Somemorethermodynamics:Briefdiscussionofcycleefficienciescontinued

IdealcyclesII

Heatexchangercycle

Realcycles

Stagnationproperties,efficiencies,
pressurelosses
TheSolarMercury50

Realcycles

Mechanicalefficiencies
Specificheats(temperaturevariation)
Fuelairratio,combustionandcycle
efficiencies
Bleeds

Jetenginenozzles
RadialcompressorI

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GeneralizationoftheCarnotefficiency
th ,carnot

TL
TL
1
1
TH
TH

TL average cold temperature

TH average hot temperature
IsgeneralizationofCarnotefficiency
toBraytoncyclepossible?
Defineaveragetemp.tovaluethatwould
givethesameheattransfer,i.e.:
3

qin

Tds T

qout

Tds T

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GeneralizationofCarnotefficiency
Butfortheisobarwehave,

0
T3
P3
T3
s c p ln R ln c p ln
T2
P2
T2

Furthermore,wehaveGibbsequation
(CengelandBoles):
du Tds Pdv

aswellas:

dq dw du d (h pv) dh pdv vdp

Thus,theaveragetemperatureisobtainedfrom(dp=0):
3

T
T
TH s TH c p ln 3 Tds [combine relations ] c p dT c p T23 TH 23
T
T2 2
2
ln 3
T2

Deriveanexpressionfortheloweraveragetemperatureinthesameway.

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GeneralizationofCarnotefficiency
th , Brayton

T3 T4 T2 T1

T3 T2

T3 T4
T41 T2 T3
1

T32 T1 T4
T2 T1

T41
T4
ln
TL
TL
T1
1 1
1
th ,Carnot
T32
TH
TH
T3
ln
T2

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Heatexchangecycle
When T4 > T2 a heat exchanger can be introduced.

This is true when:

1 r t 2 ( 1)

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Theory3.1Idealheatexchangercycle
Here we obtain the efficiency:

c p (T3 T4 ) c p (T2 T1 )
c p (T3 T5 )

(T3 T4 ) (T2 T1 )

(T3 T4 )

Not independent
of T3!!! (simple cycle
is independent of t3)

T2
1
1)
(T2 T1 ) T2 T3
T1
T1
r
T1
1

1
1 1
1
T2
T
(T3 T4 ) T1 T4
T
t
4
T4 ( 1)
T3 1
T1
T2
T1 (

Power output is unaffected by heat exchangers since the

turbine and compressor work are the same as in the simple cycle.

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Heatexchangecycle

Very high efficiencies can be theoretically be obtained!

Heat exchanger metallurgical limits will be relevant.
T4 = 1000.0 K

=> 70%

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Heatexchangecycle
What happens
with the average
temperature at
which heat is
added/rejected
when the
pressure ratio
changes in heat
exchange cycle?

TH

qin

qout

Low pressure ratio

=> high efficiency

qin

qout

TH

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Cycleswithlosses
a.

Changeinkineticenergybetweeninletandoutlet
maynotbenegligible:

Ve2
Vi 2
Q W m e he
gze m i hi
gzi
2
2
all exits e

all inlets i

b. Fluidfriction=>
burners
combustionchambers
exhaustducts

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Cycleswithlosses
c. Heatexchangers.
Economicsize=>
terminaltemperature
difference,i.e.T5<T4.
d. Frictionlossesinshaft,i.e.
thetransmissionofturbinepowerto
compressor.Auxiliarypowerrequirement
suchasoilandfuelpumps.
e. andcpvarywithtemperatureandgas
composition.

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Cycleswithlosses
f.

g.

EfficiencyisdefinedbySFC
(specificfuelconsumption=fuel
consumptionperunitnetwork
output).Cycleefficiency
obtainedusingfuelheatingvalue.
Coolingofbladerootsand
turbinedisksoftenrequire
approximatelythesamemass
flowofgasasfuelflow=>air
flowisapproximatedasconstant
forpreliminarycalculations.This
isdoneinthiscourse.

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Stagnationproperties
Forhighspeedflows,thepotentialenergyofthefluidcanstill
beneglectedbutthekineticenergycannot!

Q W

all exits e

m e

Ve2
Vi 2
he
gze m i hi
gzi
2
2
all inlets i

V22
V12
[single input - single output ] m 2 h2
gz 2 m 1 h1
gz1
2
2
0
0
h02
h01

Itisconvenienttocombinethestatictemperatureandthekinetic
energyintoasingletermcalledthestagnation(ortotal)enthalpy,
h0=h+V2/2,i.e.theenergyobtainedwhenagasisbroughttorest
withoutheatorworktransfer

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Stagnationproperties
V22
V12
q w h2
h1
h02 h01
2 2
h02

h01

ForaperfectgaswegetthestagnationtemperatureT0,
accordingto:
2

V
c pT0 c pT
2

V
T0 T
2c p

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Stagnationpressure
Definedinsamemannerasstagnationtemperature(no
heatorworktransfer)withaddedrestriction
retardationisthoughttooccurreversibly

Thuswedefinethe
stagnationpressurep0by:
Notethatforanisentropic
processbetween02and01
weget
P02 P02 P2 P1

P01 P2 P1 P01

T02

T2

T2

T1

T1

T01

P0 T0

P T

T02 T2 T1

T2 T1 T01

T02

T01

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Compressor and turbine efficiencies

Isentropicefficiency(compressorsandturbinesareapproximately
adiabatic=>ifexpansionisreversibleitisisentropic).Theisentropic

efficiencyisforthecompressoris:

c T
h
c

h0 c p T0
'
0

'
p

'
0

'
Wherearetheaveragedspecificheatsofthetemperature
p
p

c ,c

intervals0102and0102respectively.

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Compressorandturbineefficiencies
Idealandmeantemperature
differencesarenotvery
different.Thusitisagood
approximationtoassume:

c cp
'
p

Wethereforedefine:

T02 T01
c
T02 T01

Similarlyfortheturbine:

T03 T04
t
T03 T04

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Compressorandturbineefficiencies
1

T02 P02
T03 P03

and

Usingproducesthe
T01 P01
T04 P04

frequentlyusedexpressions:

T01
T02 T01

P02

P01

1
T03 T04 T03 t 1

P
03

04

(2.11)
1

(2.12)

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Turbineefficiencyoptions
Iftheturbineexhaustsdirectly
toatmospherethekineticenergy
islostandamoreproper
definitionofefficiencywould
be:

1
T03 T04 T03t 1

P03

Inpracticesomeofthekineticenergyisrecoveredinan
exhaustdiffuser=>turbinepressureratioincreases.
Hereweputp04=paforgasturbinesexhaustinginto
atmosphereandthinkoftastakingbothturbineand
exhaustductlossesintoaccount

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Turbinediffusers

Recovered
energy

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Heatexchangerefficiency
Conservationofenergy(neglectingenergytransfertosurrounding):

c p , 46 T04 T06 c p , 25 T05 T02

InarealheatexchangerT05willnolongerequalT04(T05<T04).Weintroduceheatexchangereffectivenessas:

Modernheatexchangersaredesignedto
foreffectivenessvaluesabove90%.Use
ofstainlesssteelrequiresT04around
900K(orless).Moreadvancedsteal
alloyscanbeusedupto1025K.

T05 T02
Effectiveness
T04 T02

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Pressurelossesburners&heatexchangers

Burnerpressurelosses
Flamestabilizing&mixing
Fundamentalloss(Chapter7+Rayleighline
appendixA.4)

Heatexchangerpressureloss
AirpassagepressurelossPha
GaspassagepressurelossPhg
Lossesdependonheatexchangereffectiveness.A
4%pressurelossisareasonablestartingpointfor
design.

pb pha

P03 P02 1

p02
P02

pb
2 3% (industrial gas turbine)
p02
pb
3 6% (aircraft engine)
p02

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TheSolarMercury50
4.3MWoutput
=40.5%
Systemwasdesignedfrom
scratchtoallowhighperformance
integrationofheatexchanger

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Mechanicallosses
Turbinepoweristransmitteddirectlyfromtheturbine
withoutintermediategearing=>(onlybearingandwindage
losses).Wedefinethetransmissionefficiencym:
Wturbine

c p ,12 T02 T01

m

Usuallypowertodrivefuelandoilpumpsaretransmittedfromthe
shaft.Wewillassumem=0.99forcalculations.

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Temperaturevariationofspecificheat
Wehavealreadyestablished:
cp=f1(T)
cv=f2(T)
Since=cp/cvwe
have =f3(T)
Thecombustionproductthermodynamic
propertieswilldependonTandf(fuelair
ratio)

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Pressuredependency?
At1500Kdissociationbeginstohavean
impactoncpand.

PH 2O

P
PO2

1
2

PH 2

Detailedgastablesforafterburners
mayincludepressureeffects.Weexcludetheminthis
course.

1
H 2 O2 H 2O
2
1
CO O2 CO2
2

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Temperaturevariationofspecificheat
Inthiscourseweuse:

c pa 1005 J/kg , a 1.400

c pg 1148 J/kg , g 1.333
Sincegammaandcpvaryinopposingsensessomeofthe
errorintroducedbythisapproximationiscancelled.

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Determiningthefuelairratio
CalculatefthatgivesT03forgivenT02?Usefirstlawfor
controlvolumes(q=w=0)andthatenthalpyisapoint
function(anypathwillproducethesameresult)

1 f c pg T03 298 f H 25 c pa T02 298 fc pf T f

298

0

fissmall(typicallyaround0.02)andcpfisalsosmall=>lastterm
isnegligible.Theequationdeterminesf.

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Combustiontemperaturerise
Hypotheticfuel:
86.08%carbon
13.92%hydrogen
H25=43100kj/kg
Curvesokforkerosene
burnedindryair.Notok
inafterburner(fin0).

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Shaftcycleperformanceparameters
f
SFC specific fuel consumption
wN
wnet
cycle efficiency
fQnet , p

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Bleeds
Combustorandturbine
regionsrequiremostofthe
coolingair.
Antiice
Ruleofthumb:takeairas
earlyaspossible(lesswork
putin)
Accessoryunitcooling(oil
system,aircraftpower
supply(generator),fuel
pumps)
Airenteringbeforerotor
contributestowork!

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Aircraftpropulsionthrustgeneration

Rate of change of momentum

Net Thrust
mC j

gross momentum thrust

mCa

intake momentum drag

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Jetengineprinciplesofthrustgeneration

Net Thrust

m C j Ca A j p j pa

Aircraft
pressure thrust
velocity

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Jetengineprinciplesofthrustgeneration
Noheatorworktransferinthejetenginenozzle

V52
V42
q w
h4
h05 h04 0
h5
0
2 2
0

h0 c pT0

h05

Stagnationtemperature
isconstant

T05 T04

h04

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Machnumberrelationsforstagnationproperties
Wehavealreadyintroducedthe
stagnationtemperatureas:
andshownthat(revisiontask):

V2
T0 T
2c p
c p cv R

Thespecificheatratioisdefined:

cp
cv

TheMachnumberisdefinedas:

V
V
V
M *

a
speed of sound
RT

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Machnumberrelationsforstagnationproperties
Thus:

M 2 RT c p

1 M 2 T
T0 T

T
2c p

2
R 1
1
T0
1
2
2
T
M T

1
M
2
T
2

P0 T0

butwedefined:
P T

whichdirectlygives:

P0
1 2
1
M
P
2

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Nozzleefficiencies
Nozzlemayoperatechoked
orunchoked:

T04 T5
j
T4 T5

C52
Temperatur e equivalent
2c p

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Nozzleefficiencies
Criticalpressureforirreversiblenozzleis
obtainedfrom:
T04 T05
1 2 1

1
M
T5
T5
2
2

T04 Tc
j
T04 Tc
whichgives:

P04

Pc

P04 T04

Pc Tc

1
1
1

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Basicoperationof
radialcompressor
Impellerwork
istransferredto
accelerateflow
andincrease
pressure
Diffuser
recoverhigh
speedgenerated
inimpelleras
pressure

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Radialcompressor
operation
Typicaldesigntakes50%of
increaseinstaticpressurein
diffuser
Conservationofangularmomentum
governsperformance:
Theoretica l torque
Rate of change of angular momentum
Cw 2 r2 Cw1r1

prewhirl term

Theoretica l work Cw 2 r2 Cw1r1

for cases without prewhirl Cw 2 r2 Cw 2U 2

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Slipfactor
DuetoinertiaofflowCw2<U:

Theoretica l work U 22
Stanitzformulaforestimating
0.63
n
n number of impeller vanes

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Powerinputfactor
Powerisputintoovercomingadditionalfriction
notrelatedtotheflowintheimpellerchannels
Convertsenergytoheat=>additionalloss=>

Work done U

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Overallpressurerise:

cU
p03
1
p01
c pT01

P03ishereusedtodenotethepressureat
compressorexit.P02isreservedforthestagnation
pressurebetweentheimpellerandthediffuser
vanes

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Example4.1a

=1.04,=0.90
N=290.0rev/s,
D=0.5m
Deye,tip=0.3,Deye,root=0.15
m=9.0kg/s
T01=295K

P01=1.1bar
c=0.78

Computepressureratioand
powerrequired

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Learning goals
Understand why the Carnot cycle can be used
for qualitative arguments also for the
Joule/Brayton cycle
Be able to state reasonable loss levels for gas
turbine components (turbine and compressor
performance are given in Lecture 4) and include
them in cycle analysis
Know how to compute cycle efficiencies for the
heat exchanger cycle