Chapter 10: Practical

Transformers

Introduction
In the real world, transformers are not ideal
windings have resistance
the cores are not infinitely permeable
the flux produced by the primary is not completely captured by the
secondary
leakage flux must be accounted
iron core produces eddy-current and hysteresis losses

Imperfect Cores

What happens when an infinitely

permeable core is replaced by an
iron core having hysteresis and
eddy-current losses?

core imperfections are represented

by Rm and Xm in parallel with the
primary winding
Rm models the iron losses
Xm models the permeability
the current Im flowing in Xm is the
magnetizing current that creates the
flux m
the total current I0 needed to produce
the flux is called the exciting current

Rm and Xm can be measured

experimentally by

the power values are measured under

no-load conditions

Loose Couplings

Consider now a perfect core but

the windings are loosely coupled

the primary and secondary coils have

negligible resistance
the primary is connected to a source
Eg
o the coil draws no current to drive a
mutual flux m1a

o the flux produces a counter voltage Ep

that equals Eg

the flux produces a voltage E2 on the

secondary coil
under no-load conditions, I2 is zero
and no mmf exist to drive any leakage
flux

Loose Couplings
Now a load Z is connected
across the secondary
currents I1 and I2 immediately
begin to flow, and are related by
N1 I1 = N2 I2
I2 produces an mmf N2 I2 and I1
produces an mmf N1I1 in the
opposite direction
mmf N2I2 forms a flux F2,
consisting of a mutually coupled
flux m2 and a leakage flux f2
mmf N1I1 forms a flux F1,
consisting of a mutually coupled
flux m1 and a leakage flux f1

The new mmfs upset m1a

balance
resolving the modeling conflicts
o combine m1 and m2 into a single mutual
flux m
o Es consists of two parts: E2(N2m) and
Ef2(N2f2)
o Ep consists of two parts: E1(N1m) and
Ef1(N1f1)

Leakage Reactance
The four induced voltages
can be rearranged
the rearrangement does not
change the induced voltages

Ef2 is a voltage drop across a

reactance
Xf2 = Ef2/I2
Ef1 is a voltage drop across a
reactance
Xf1 = Ef1/I1

Imperfect Transformers
Example
a large 120 V, 60 Hz transformer with no loads draws an exciting current I0
of 5 A at rated voltage
a wattmeter test shows the iron losses to be 180 W
find
a.
b.

the reactive power absorbed by the core

Rm, Xm, If, and Im

Example
the secondary winding consist of 180 turns, and under load the winding
draws 18 A, producing 20 mWb of mutual flux and 3 mWb of leakage flux
calculate
a.
b.

the voltages induced in the secondary winding

the secondary leakage reactance

Equivalent Circuit
The primary and secondary
windings are composed of copper
or alluminum conductors
conductors exhibit resistance to the
current flow
the leakage reactance can also be
modelled as a series inductance

the core excitation and

losses are modeled as a
shunt circuit
combining all elements with
the ideal transformer forms an
equivalent circuit for practical
transformers

Losses
As in all machines, a transformer has losses
I2R losses in the primary and secondary windings
hysteresis losses and eddy-current losses in the core
stray losses due to currents induced in the tank and metal supports by
the primary and secondary leakage fluxes

Losses appear in the form of heat

produces an increase in termperature
drop in efficiency
o iron losses depend on the mutual flux and hence the applied voltage
o the winding losses depend on the current drawn by the load

Losses
Example
the nameplate of a distribution transformer indicates 250 kVA,
60 Hz, 4160 V primary, 480 V secondary
calculate
a.
b.
c.

the nominal primary and secondary currents

if the core losses are 1200 W and the full-load copper losses are 1800
W what is the transformer efficiency?
when is the transformer most efficient?

Voltage Regulation
Important attribute of a transformer
constantly held primary voltage
impact of secondary voltage due to changing loads

Example
a single-phase transformer rated at 3 MVA, 69 kV/4160 V with
an internal impedance of 127 ohms as seen on the primary
a. calculate the rated primary and secondary currents
b. the voltage regulation from no-load to full load at unity power factor

Measuring Impedances

We can measure using two tests the actual

values of Xm, Rm, Xp and Rp for a given
transformer
voltages, currents, and real powers
are measured
open-circuit test, secondary opened
o rated voltage applied to the primary

short-circuit test, secondary shorted

o rated current applied to primary

Measuring Impedances
Example
500 kVA, 69 kV/4160V, 60 Hz transformer with terminals X 1
and X2 shorted
a.

measurements: Esc = 2600 V, Isc = 4 A, Psc = 2400 W

b.

find the HV leakage reactance and resistance values

Example
terminals H1 and H2 are opened, voltage applied to terminals
X1 and X2
a.

measurements: Es = 4160 V, I0 = 2 A, Pm = 5000 W

b.

find HV magnetization impedance

Homework
Problems: 10-18, 10-23, 10-25, 10-30, 10-31