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SENSORY PATHWAYS IN

MAN

Olfactory sensations
Time it took for the smell to be
detected

CHAMBER

TIME (sec)

Lower

Upper

55

Olfactory sensations

The distance of the odoriferous substance to


the receptors determines the strength of the
perceived odor.
Concentration of odorant substance was high,
thus more of the substance binds to the
receptors
The substance must be slightly water
soluble so it can pass thru the mucus
The substance must be slightly lipid
soluble, because lipid constituents of cilium
are weak barrier to non-lipid-soluble odorants

Olfactory adaptation
Time it took for the smell of the
different substances to disappear
SUBSTA
NCE
herb

TIME
(sec)
22

REMARK
S
Pungent

perfume

27

Strong

food

51

Appetizin
g

Olfactory adaptation
Adaptation refers to the state in which
olfactory neurons have ceased to be
stimulated by odorant substances
after a few minutes of full exposure.
Olfactory receptors are known to
adapt to a degree of around 50% after
1 second or so after stimulation
Olfactory adaptation
Differences in glomeruli

Olfactory adaptation

(Guyton and Hall,

Olfactory sensations
Least understood of all the senses
Smell and taste classified as visceral
senses
Both taste and smell receptors are
chemoreceptors

Stimulated by molecules in solution in


mucus in nose and saliva in mouth

Olfactory sensations

(Mader,
2001)

Olfactory sensations

(Ganong, 2003)

(Guyton and Hall,

Olfactory sensations

(Guyton and Hall,

Olfactory sensations
Signal transduction

Odorant substance came in contact with


olfactory membrane
Substance diffused into mucus membrane
Substance bound to a portion of the receptor
proteins in cilium membrane

Receptor proteins threads thru the membrane


several times folding inward and outward
Odorant binds to the receptor protein that folds
outward
G-protein found on the inside of the folding protein

Olfactory sensations

G-proteins were excited, dissociating the


alpha subunit
Alpha subunit activated adenylyl cyclase,
attached to the inside of the ciliary
membrane
Adenylyl cyclase converted ATP to cAMP
cAMP activated nearby sodium channels,
opening them
Action potential was transmitted into the
CNS by means of the olfactory nACerve
(smell pathway has no relay in the thalamus

Gustatory Sensations
Taste is mainly a function of the taste
buds in the mouth

(Guyton and Hall,


2006)

Gustatory Sensations
Primary sensations
Sweet sugars, glycols, alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones, amides,
esters, some amino acids, some
small proteins, sulfonic acids,
halogenated acids, or inorganic
salts of lead and beryllium
Sour H+, this is why all acids
taste sour
Bitter evoked by alkaloids

Gustatory Sensations
Table 4.1 areas of tongue in which
different tastes are detected
Area of
tongue

Sweet

Salty

Sour

Bitter

Tip

Sides

Back

Gustatory Sensations

Schaum,

Gustatory Sensations
Taste threshold the minimum
amount a substance in order to
perceive a stimulus whether pleasant
or unpleasant

Different values for different substances


According to Despopoulous and
Silbernagl (2003) the taste threshold for
table sugar is 10-2 mol/L

Gustatory Sensations
Table 4.2 Time it takes for sugar to
be tasted
Form of sugar
Time tasted (second)
Crystals

13

solution

Molecules were already


dissipated, readily
stimulating the taste buds

Gustatory Sensations
Table 4.2 Sensations produced by four different
foods
Food
Placed on
Chewing
Chewing
tongue

(closed
nostrils)

(open
nostrils)

Carrot

Banana

Potato

Onion

* + reception of taste; - non reception


of taste

Gustatory Sensations
The sense of taste is influenced greatly
by the sense of smell.
The gustation and olfaction work
together to let the cerebral cortex
interpret a certain stimulus.
Some particles of the odorants move to
the mouth region and excite the taste buds
present (Mader, 2004; Seeley, 2004).

Gustatory Sensations
TASTE BUDS
Composed of 50 modified epithelial
cells: sustentacular and taste cells
TASTE CELLS
invaginated with microvilli, taste
nerve fibers and vesicles containing
neurotransmitters fpr excitation of
nerve endings for taste stimuulation

Gustatory Sensations
TASTE BUDS
Composed of 50 modified epithelial cells:
sustentacular and taste cells
Tongue, palata, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis and
uppermost regions of pharynx
TASTE CELLS
evaginated with microvilli, taste nerve fibers
and vesicles containing neurotransmitters for
excitation of nerve endings for taste
stimulation

Gustatory Sensations
TASTE BUDS
Composed of 50 modified epithelial
cells: sustentacular and taste cells
TASTE CELLS
invaginated with microvilli, taste
nerve fibers and vesicles containing
neurotransmitters fpr excitation of
nerve endings for taste stimuulation

Gustatory Sensations
Signal transduction
taste chemical binds to a protein
receptor molecule lying on the
outer surface of the microvilli

Gustatory Sensations

(Guyton and Hall,

Gustatory Sensations

Pathway

Taste receptors from the anterior 2/3 of the tongue


generate action potential that pass thru the
1.
2.
3.
4.

lingual node,
chorda tympani
facial nerve, CN VII
Tractus solitarius

Posterior 1/3 of the tongue, (circumvallate papillae).


AP transmitted thru
1. Glossopharyngeal nerves, CN IX
2. Tractus solitarius

Base of tongue
.
.

Vagus nerve, CN X
Tractus solitarius

Gustatory Sensations
Pathway
Note that all taste fibers synapse at the
nuclei of the tractus solitarius
Second order neurons were sent to ventral
posterior medial nucleus of the thalamus
third order neurons were transmitted to
the lower tip of the postcentral gyrus in
pareital cerebral cortex
perception was formed, identification of the
taste (bitter, sweet, sour, or salty)

Photoreception
Table 1. Measured distances for the different visual

Subjec
t

Age

Blind
spot
(mm)

Visual
Convergen
ce (mm)

Near Point
Acommodation
(mm)
Left eye

Right
eye

Ruben

19

55

95

25

25

Angel

20

35

100

15

30

Jade

19

40

80

20

20

Pupillary Reflex
Table 2. Changes in the aperture of the
eye in response to the presence or
absence of light.

Conditions

Size of
Aperture

With light

pupil constricted

Without

pupil dilated

Optical pathway

Photoreceptors:
Rods sensitive to dim light
(scotopic
vision)
- photoreceptive
pigment:
rhodopsin
Cones sensitive to bright
light
(photopic vision) and
color vision
- photoreceptive
pigment: opsin

Optical pathway
light cornea pupil
lens (light rays are refracted)
retina rods and cones
(nerve cells) optic nerve
optic chiasma (2 optic
nerves cross) optic tracts
occipital lobe of the brain

Optical pathway

(Guyton and Hall,


2006)

Signal Transduction
rod exposed to light
rhodopsin decomposes, decreases
the rod membrane conductance for
sodium ions in the outer segment of
the rod
results to increased negativity of
rod membrane potential
(hyperpolarization) complete
opposite of depolarization.

Signal Transduction
Transmits signals to the plexiform
layer where it synapses with the
bipolar and horizantal cells
bipolar cells transmit signals to the
inside of the inner plexiform layer,
where synapse with the ganglion
cells and amacrine cells
Ganglion cells transmit impulse from
retina to the optic nerve

Optic Disk
axons of ganglion neurons extend posteriorly
to a small patch of the retina
devoid of any receptors
site where axons are formed into bundles
and exit as the optic nerve BLIND SPOT
THIS REGION IS VOID OF
PHOTORECEPTOR NEURONS
light cannot be perceived
no impulse conduction no image

Refraction
when light travels through a
transparent medium of different
density, like water
light bends

four refracting media of the eye


cornea
aqueous humor
lens
vitreous humor

Refraction
bent light rays verge
forms an image at the retina VISION

lens adjust for distance in order to


focus on the retina
any adjustments of image in the retina
ACCOMODATION

Near Point Accomodation


the closer an image to the eye the
LENS curve more light
adjustments on the retina
there is such a distance between
object and light which is of the limits
of the contraction of the ciliary
muscles bound to suspensory
ligaments to the lens
IMAGE BEGINS TO BLUR

Other ACCOMODATION mechanisms


sometimes, lens move toward the
back of the eye turning inside the
nose CONVERGENCE
dilation or constriction

FLASHING OF LIGHT
CONSTRICTION
DARK ENVT. DILATION

PUPILLARY CONSTRICTION
and DILATION

SYMPATHETIC and PARASYMPATHETIC


NS
controls pupillary sphincter muscle
signals through them sent to the eye via
THIRD CRANIAL NERVE from THIRD NERVE
NUCLEUS IN THE BRAIN STEM

light strikes
retina

impulses from
optic nerves

pre-tectal nuclei

CONSTRICTION
OF THE IRIS

secondary
impulses pass
thru EdingerWestphal
nucleus

(Guyton and Hall,

VISUAL FIELD
entire vision that one sees out of
each eye
bundles in certain regions of the eye
can be determined by mapping the
field of vision for each eye
PERIMETRY
assessed by Goldmann Perimeter

Goldmann Perimeter
subject is allowed to stare at the
center with one eye closed
small object or light is moved slowly
from periphery to center of vision
from many directions
subject indicates whether light is
seen or not from the corner of the
eye
blind spots can be assessed using
the test

AUDITORY
SENSATIONS

able 4.9 Comparison of Air and Bone Conducti


EAR
LEFT
RIGHT

AIR
BONE
CONDUCTION CONDUCTION
+
++
+

++

Energy that activates sensory


receptors is known as stimulus
The process by which a stimulus is
transformed to an electrical
response known as stimulus
transduction.
Stimulus transduction involves the
opening or closing of ion channels

AUDITORY SENSATIONS
Signal transduction
Specialized cells in organ of corti
called hair cells(mechanoreceptors)
hair cells have stereocilia that
transform pressure into action
potential

Sounds through BONES has GREATER


INTENSITY due to the SHORTER LENGTH of
path that the auditory stimulus has to
travel.
mastoid process
auditory ossicles
inner ear
neural pathway to auditory cortex of
brain

THROUGH AIR
CONDUCTION
pinna

neural
pathway
to reach
auditory
cortex of
the brain

external
auditory
meatus

tympanic
membra
ne

inner ear

auditory
ossicles

EQUILIBRIUM
Semi-circular canals of the ear
- responsible for maintaining balance
Unstable: left foot at
the back of right
foot; not the optimal
position of humans
when standing

MECHANISM
Awkward body vestibular nerve
send signals to the
positions and
brain to maintain
sudden
balance
movements
brain send
signals to the
left and right
part of the
body

needs to correct
its position thus,
the body
movements

CUTANEOUS
SENSATIONS
The skin is consists of:
free somatic sensory nerve endings
-nociceptors (pain) and thermoreceptors
(temperature)
Merkel Endings
- mechanoreceptors, pressure and vibration
receptors

Pacinian Corpuscles
-tactile receptor
Ruffini Corpuscles
- mechano-reception in tension of collagen
fibers

REFERRED PAIN
- acuity of pain in a part of the body
NOT CONNECTED FROM THE TRUE
SOURCE of the pain
- there are connections existing
between different neurons coming
from different parts of the body.

Spatial summation
- phenomenon by which the increasing
signal strength is transmitted by using
progressively greater numbers of fibers

all the squares had felt the


sensation for all stimuli

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