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Olfactory sensations
Time it took for the smell to be
detected
CHAMBER
TIME (sec)
Lower
Upper
55
Olfactory sensations
Olfactory adaptation
Time it took for the smell of the
different substances to disappear
SUBSTA
NCE
herb
TIME
(sec)
22
REMARK
S
Pungent
perfume
27
Strong
food
51
Appetizin
g
Olfactory adaptation
Adaptation refers to the state in which
olfactory neurons have ceased to be
stimulated by odorant substances
after a few minutes of full exposure.
Olfactory receptors are known to
adapt to a degree of around 50% after
1 second or so after stimulation
Olfactory adaptation
Differences in glomeruli
Olfactory adaptation
Olfactory sensations
Least understood of all the senses
Smell and taste classified as visceral
senses
Both taste and smell receptors are
chemoreceptors
Olfactory sensations
(Mader,
2001)
Olfactory sensations
(Ganong, 2003)
Olfactory sensations
Olfactory sensations
Signal transduction
Olfactory sensations
Gustatory Sensations
Taste is mainly a function of the taste
buds in the mouth
Gustatory Sensations
Primary sensations
Sweet sugars, glycols, alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones, amides,
esters, some amino acids, some
small proteins, sulfonic acids,
halogenated acids, or inorganic
salts of lead and beryllium
Sour H+, this is why all acids
taste sour
Bitter evoked by alkaloids
Gustatory Sensations
Table 4.1 areas of tongue in which
different tastes are detected
Area of
tongue
Sweet
Salty
Sour
Bitter
Tip
Sides
Back
Gustatory Sensations
Schaum,
Gustatory Sensations
Taste threshold the minimum
amount a substance in order to
perceive a stimulus whether pleasant
or unpleasant
Gustatory Sensations
Table 4.2 Time it takes for sugar to
be tasted
Form of sugar
Time tasted (second)
Crystals
13
solution
Gustatory Sensations
Table 4.2 Sensations produced by four different
foods
Food
Placed on
Chewing
Chewing
tongue
(closed
nostrils)
(open
nostrils)
Carrot
Banana
Potato
Onion
Gustatory Sensations
The sense of taste is influenced greatly
by the sense of smell.
The gustation and olfaction work
together to let the cerebral cortex
interpret a certain stimulus.
Some particles of the odorants move to
the mouth region and excite the taste buds
present (Mader, 2004; Seeley, 2004).
Gustatory Sensations
TASTE BUDS
Composed of 50 modified epithelial
cells: sustentacular and taste cells
TASTE CELLS
invaginated with microvilli, taste
nerve fibers and vesicles containing
neurotransmitters fpr excitation of
nerve endings for taste stimuulation
Gustatory Sensations
TASTE BUDS
Composed of 50 modified epithelial cells:
sustentacular and taste cells
Tongue, palata, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis and
uppermost regions of pharynx
TASTE CELLS
evaginated with microvilli, taste nerve fibers
and vesicles containing neurotransmitters for
excitation of nerve endings for taste
stimulation
Gustatory Sensations
TASTE BUDS
Composed of 50 modified epithelial
cells: sustentacular and taste cells
TASTE CELLS
invaginated with microvilli, taste
nerve fibers and vesicles containing
neurotransmitters fpr excitation of
nerve endings for taste stimuulation
Gustatory Sensations
Signal transduction
taste chemical binds to a protein
receptor molecule lying on the
outer surface of the microvilli
Gustatory Sensations
Gustatory Sensations
Pathway
lingual node,
chorda tympani
facial nerve, CN VII
Tractus solitarius
Base of tongue
.
.
Vagus nerve, CN X
Tractus solitarius
Gustatory Sensations
Pathway
Note that all taste fibers synapse at the
nuclei of the tractus solitarius
Second order neurons were sent to ventral
posterior medial nucleus of the thalamus
third order neurons were transmitted to
the lower tip of the postcentral gyrus in
pareital cerebral cortex
perception was formed, identification of the
taste (bitter, sweet, sour, or salty)
Photoreception
Table 1. Measured distances for the different visual
Subjec
t
Age
Blind
spot
(mm)
Visual
Convergen
ce (mm)
Near Point
Acommodation
(mm)
Left eye
Right
eye
Ruben
19
55
95
25
25
Angel
20
35
100
15
30
Jade
19
40
80
20
20
Pupillary Reflex
Table 2. Changes in the aperture of the
eye in response to the presence or
absence of light.
Conditions
Size of
Aperture
With light
pupil constricted
Without
pupil dilated
Optical pathway
Photoreceptors:
Rods sensitive to dim light
(scotopic
vision)
- photoreceptive
pigment:
rhodopsin
Cones sensitive to bright
light
(photopic vision) and
color vision
- photoreceptive
pigment: opsin
Optical pathway
light cornea pupil
lens (light rays are refracted)
retina rods and cones
(nerve cells) optic nerve
optic chiasma (2 optic
nerves cross) optic tracts
occipital lobe of the brain
Optical pathway
Signal Transduction
rod exposed to light
rhodopsin decomposes, decreases
the rod membrane conductance for
sodium ions in the outer segment of
the rod
results to increased negativity of
rod membrane potential
(hyperpolarization) complete
opposite of depolarization.
Signal Transduction
Transmits signals to the plexiform
layer where it synapses with the
bipolar and horizantal cells
bipolar cells transmit signals to the
inside of the inner plexiform layer,
where synapse with the ganglion
cells and amacrine cells
Ganglion cells transmit impulse from
retina to the optic nerve
Optic Disk
axons of ganglion neurons extend posteriorly
to a small patch of the retina
devoid of any receptors
site where axons are formed into bundles
and exit as the optic nerve BLIND SPOT
THIS REGION IS VOID OF
PHOTORECEPTOR NEURONS
light cannot be perceived
no impulse conduction no image
Refraction
when light travels through a
transparent medium of different
density, like water
light bends
Refraction
bent light rays verge
forms an image at the retina VISION
FLASHING OF LIGHT
CONSTRICTION
DARK ENVT. DILATION
PUPILLARY CONSTRICTION
and DILATION
light strikes
retina
impulses from
optic nerves
pre-tectal nuclei
CONSTRICTION
OF THE IRIS
secondary
impulses pass
thru EdingerWestphal
nucleus
VISUAL FIELD
entire vision that one sees out of
each eye
bundles in certain regions of the eye
can be determined by mapping the
field of vision for each eye
PERIMETRY
assessed by Goldmann Perimeter
Goldmann Perimeter
subject is allowed to stare at the
center with one eye closed
small object or light is moved slowly
from periphery to center of vision
from many directions
subject indicates whether light is
seen or not from the corner of the
eye
blind spots can be assessed using
the test
AUDITORY
SENSATIONS
AIR
BONE
CONDUCTION CONDUCTION
+
++
+
++
AUDITORY SENSATIONS
Signal transduction
Specialized cells in organ of corti
called hair cells(mechanoreceptors)
hair cells have stereocilia that
transform pressure into action
potential
THROUGH AIR
CONDUCTION
pinna
neural
pathway
to reach
auditory
cortex of
the brain
external
auditory
meatus
tympanic
membra
ne
inner ear
auditory
ossicles
EQUILIBRIUM
Semi-circular canals of the ear
- responsible for maintaining balance
Unstable: left foot at
the back of right
foot; not the optimal
position of humans
when standing
MECHANISM
Awkward body vestibular nerve
send signals to the
positions and
brain to maintain
sudden
balance
movements
brain send
signals to the
left and right
part of the
body
needs to correct
its position thus,
the body
movements
CUTANEOUS
SENSATIONS
The skin is consists of:
free somatic sensory nerve endings
-nociceptors (pain) and thermoreceptors
(temperature)
Merkel Endings
- mechanoreceptors, pressure and vibration
receptors
Pacinian Corpuscles
-tactile receptor
Ruffini Corpuscles
- mechano-reception in tension of collagen
fibers
REFERRED PAIN
- acuity of pain in a part of the body
NOT CONNECTED FROM THE TRUE
SOURCE of the pain
- there are connections existing
between different neurons coming
from different parts of the body.
Spatial summation
- phenomenon by which the increasing
signal strength is transmitted by using
progressively greater numbers of fibers