ECG 253 GEOLOGY

INTRODUCTION TO
GEOLOGY
1

At the end of this course, students should

be able to:

COURSE
OUT
COM
ES
(CO)

CO1 : Define the geological principles in

civil engineering works
CO2 : Identify rock types and geological
process of rock-soil formation
CO3 : Perform laboratory test for
engineering classification.
CO4 : Perform effectively as a team in
carrying out laboratory works.

LEARNING
OUT
COM
ES
(LO)
LO1 : The student should
understand the
definition of
geology.

LO2 : The student should

understand the
plate boundary.

WHAT IS GEOLOGY????

a)

b)

From the Greek geo and logos is defined as the study of

the Earth
Divided in 2 broad areas:
Physical geology~ the study of earth materials, such as
minerals and rocks, as well as the process operating
within earth and on its surface
Historical geology~examine the origin and revolution of
earth, its continents, oceans, atmosphere and lives
Natural disasters such as earthquakes, volcanic eruption,
tsunami, landslides, and floods are the components of
geology that affect everyone
The more we understand how these phenomena work, the
better prepared we can be to lessen their destruction and
minimize the loss of life resulting from them.
4

22nd March 2007 Putrajaya Precint 9

-23 vehicles burried
-50m high hill, 45 slopes, 10m from the resident areas
6th Dec 2009- landslide at Taman Bukit Mewah, Bukit Antarabangsa
109m in width at the crest, 120m in length, 15m in depth
and the angle of the scarp of the crown ranges from 45 to 50
-14 units of bungalows swept away

ACTIVITY 1
In pairs, discuss why
geology is important?

1.1
PRINCIPLE
DIVISIONS
OF THE EARTH
7

THE
EXPANDING
UNIVERSE
8

BIG BANG THEORY

1.1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE SOLAR

SYSTEM
THE SUN

9 PLANETS

SOLAR
SYSTEM
CONSIST OF

101 MOONS OR SATELLITES

(THE NUMBERS KEEP CHANGING)
TREMENDOUS NUMBERS OF ASTEROIDS
(BETWEEN MARS AND JUPITER)
MILLION OF COMETS AND METEORITES

INTERPLANETARY DUST AND GASES

10

Pluto

Mars

SUN

Neptune
Earth

Mercury

Venus

Uranus

Saturn
Jupiter

11

Saturn

Uranus
Neptune
Pluto

Jupiter
Mars
Earth
Venus
Mercury
12

CONT

Earth is the only

planet
revolve
around the
sun

Pluto???
Not included in either category
TWO GROUPS OF
PLANET

4 smaller planets orbiting close to

the sun (TERRESTRIAL PLANETS~ Mercury,
Venus , Earth and Mars)

4 larger planets occupying the outer

reaches of the solar system (JOVIAN PLANETS~
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune)

13

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TERRESTRIAL

AND JOVIAN PLANETS
SIZE

MASS

DENSITY

The largest Terrestrial planets (Earth & Venus) have

diameters only as great as the diameter of the
smallest Jovian planet (Neptune)

The Terrestrial masses are only 1/17 as great as

Neptunes.
The densities of the Terrestrial planets average about
five times the density of water, whereas the Jovian
planets have densities that average only 1.5 times that
of water.

14

SUBSTANCES THAT MAKE UP

THE PLANETS BASED ON THEIR MELTING POINT

The gases, hydrogen

and helium are those
with melting points near
absolute zero.

The ices include ammonia

(NH3), methane (CH4),
carbon dioxide (CO2)
and water (H2O).
They have intermediate
melting points.

The rocks are principally

silicate minerals and
metallic iron which have
melting points exceeding
700C
15

CONT

The inner, or Terrestrial planets are dense

bodies mainly composed of iron and silicate
(containing the element silicon) rocks with
minor amounts of gases and ices.

The Jovian planets on the other hand contain large

amounts of gases (hydrogen and helium) and ices (mostly water,
ammonia, and methane) are much lighter in density.

16

1.1.2 PHYSICAL FEATURES OF THE

EARTH
HYDROSPHERE

ATMOSPHERE

MAJOR
4 SPHERES

BIOSPHERE

17

GEOSPHERE

HYDROSPHERE (THE WATER ON EARTH)

Earth is sometimes called the
blue planet, water makes
earth unique.

dynamic mass of water that is

continually on the move, evaporating
from the oceans to the atmosphere,
precipitating to the land,
and running back to the ocean again.

The oceans cover 71 percent of

Earths surface to an average
depth of about 3800 meters (12,500 feet).
It accounts for about 97 percent of
Earths water.

includes the fresh

water found
underground and
in streams, lakes and glaciers.

18

ATMOSPHERE (THE AIR SURROUNDING

THE EARTH)
Earth is surrounded by a life-giving gaseous
envelope called the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is a mixture of gases, mostly nitrogen and oxygen,
with smaller amounts of argon, carbon dioxide and other gases.

The atmosphere supports life because animals need oxygen,

and plants need both carbon dioxide and oxygen.

The atmosphere supports life indirectly by regulating climate,

air acts both as a filter and as a blanket retaining heat night
and shielding us from direct solar radiation during the day.

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BIOSPHERE (THE AREA ON EARTH

WHERE THE LIFE EXIST)
The biosphere is the zone inhabited by life.
It includes the uppermost geosphere, the hydrosphere,
and the lower parts of the atmosphere.
Sea life concentrates near the surface, where sunlight
is available.
Plants also grow on the Earths surface,
with root penetrating a few meters into the soil.
Animals live on the surface, fly a kilometer
or two above it, or burrow a few meters underground.

20

GEOSPHERE
CONSIST OF THREE MAJOR
LAYERS

a less dense rocky

MANTLE

a dense metallic CORE

an even less dense

surface CRUST

21

22

THE CORE
composed mainly of iron and nickel,
heated to 6000C, about as hot as the surface of the Sun.

the outer core is apparently liquid.

the inner core is a solid.

both are thought to consist largely of iron

and a small amount of nickel.
23

THE MANTLE
surrounds the core and lies beneath the crust.

the physical characteristics of the mantle vary with depth.

near the surface, the outermost mantle is cool
because the Earths interior heat has escape into
space: this cool rock is relatively strong and hard
the layer below the surface is so hot: the
rock is weak, soft, plastic and flows slowly.
deeper in the Earth, pressure overwhelms
temperature: the mantle rock becomes strong again.
24

THE CRUST
Earths outermost layer, consists of two types.

Continental crust is thick (20-90 km),

has an average density of 2.7 g/cm3 and
contains considerable silicon and aluminum.

Oceanic crust is thin (5-10 km), denser than continental

crust (3.0 g/cm3) and is composed of the dark
igneous rock basalt and gabbro.

25

CONT
Earth can be divided into five main layers based
on physical properties and hence mechanical strength

LITOSPHERE

ASTHENOSPHERE

MESOSPHERE

INNER CORE

OUTER CORE

26

27

LITOSPHERE
Earths outermost layer consists of the crust
and uppermost mantle and forms a relatively
cool, rigid shell.

Although this layer is composed of materials with

markedly different chemical composition, it tends to act
as a unit that exhibits rigid behavior,
mainly because it is cool and thus strong.
This layer, called the lithosphere (sphere of rock),
averages about 100 kilometers in thickness but may be
more than 250 kilometers thick below the older
portions of the continents.
28

ASTHENOSPHERE

Beneath the lithosphere, in the upper mantle

(to a depth of about 660 kilometers), lies a soft,
comparatively weak layer known as the asthenosphere (weak sphere).
The top portion of the asthenosphere has a temperature/pressure
regime that results in a small amount of melting.

Within this very weak zone the lithosphere is mechanically

detached from the layer below.

The lithosphere is able to move independently of the asthenosphere.

The uppermost asthenosphere is weak because it is near

its melting point, the rocks are very easily deformed.
29

MESOSPHERE (LOWER MANTLE)

Below the zone of weakness in the uppermost asthenosphere,
increased pressure counteracts the effects of higher temperature,
and the rocks gradually strengthen with depth.

Between the depths of 660 kilometers and 2900 kilometers

a more rigid layer, called the mesosphere (middle sphere)
or lower mantle is found.

Despite their strength, the rocks of the mesosphere

are still very hot and capable of very gradual flow.

30

INNER AND OUTER CORE

The core, which is composed mostly of an
iron-nickel alloy, is divided into two regions that
exhibit very different mechanical strengths.

The outer core is a liquid layer 2270 kilometers (1410 miles)

thick. It is the convective flow of metallic iron within this zone
that generates Earths magnetic field.
The inner core is a sphere having a radius of 1216 kilometers (754 miles).
Despite its higher temperature, the material in the inner core is
stronger (because of immense pressure) than the outer core
and behaves like a solid.

31

LABEL THE EARTH DIAGRAM

CRUST
MANTLE
OUTER CORE
INNER CORE

32

1.2 GEOLOGICAL
PROCESSES

33

1.2.1 PLATE TECTONICS

According to the plate tectonics model, the uppermost mantle,
along with the overlying crust, behave as a strong, rigid layer,
known as lithosphere (lithos = stone, sphere = a ball)
which is broken into pieces called plates.
The lithosphere overlies a weaker region in the mantle
known as the asthenosphere (asthenos = weak, sphere = a ball).
The lithosphere is broken into numerous segments called plates,
that are in motion with respect to one another and
are continually changing in shape and size.

There are intermediate-sized plates include the Caribbean, Nazca

Philippine, Arabian, Cocos, Scotia, and Juan de Fuca plates.

34

7 MAJOR LITOSPHERIC PLATES

NORTH AMERICAN PLATE
SOUTH AMERICAN PLATE

7 MAJOR
LITHOSPHERIC
PLATES

PACIFIC PLATE
AFRICAN PLATE
EURASIAN PLATE
AUSTRALIAN-INDIAN PLATE
ANTARTIC PLATE

35

CONT..
Lithospheric plates move relative to each other at a very slow
but continuous rate that averages about 5 centimeters
(2 inches) per year.

This movement is ultimately driven by the unequal distribution of

heat within Earth.

Plate are bounded by three distinct types of boundaries,

which are differentiated by the type of movement they exhibit.
These boundaries are:
1. Divergent boundaries
2. Convergent boundaries
3. Transform fault boundaries
36

Cont.
Each plate is bounded by a combination
of these three types of plate margins.

For example, the Juan de Fuca plate has a divergent zone on the west,
a convergent boundary on the east, and numerous transform faults,
which offset segments of the oceanic ridge.

37

DIVERGENCE BOUNDARIES
(CONSTRUCTIVE MARGINS)
Most divergent (di = apart, vergere = to move) boundaries
are located along the crest of oceanic ridges and
can be thought of as constructive plate margins
since this is where new oceanic lithosphere is generated.

Divergent boundaries are also called spreading centers,

because seafloor spreading occurs at these boundaries.

As the plates move away from the ridge axis, the fractures that
form are filled with molten rock that wells up from the hot mantle below.

This magma cools gradually to produce new seafloor.

Adjacent plates spread apart and new oceanic lithosphere forms between them.
39

HISTORY OF DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY

Rising magma beneath a continent

pushes the crust up, producing
numerous fractures, faults, rift
valleys, and volcanic activity

As the crust is stretched and thinned,

rift valleys develop and lava
flows onto the valley floors,
such as seen today in the East
African Rift Valley

Continued spreading further

separates the continent until
it splits apart and a narrow
seaway develops.

As spreading continues, an
oceanic ridge system
forms, and an ocean
basin develop and
grow.

EAST AFRICAN RIFT VALLEY

A RIFT VALLEY NEAR QUILOTOA,

ECUADOR

CONVERGENCE BOUNDARIES
(DESTRUCTIVE MARGINS)
To balance the addition of newly created lithosphere,
older portions of oceanic lithosphere descend into the mantle along convergent
(con = together, verger = to move) boundaries.

Because lithosphere is destroyed at convergent boundaries,

they are also called destructive plate margins.
Convergent plate margins occur where two plates move toward
each other and the motion is accommodated by one
plate sliding beneath the other.
Also called subduction zones, because they are sites where lithosphere
is descending (being subducted) into the asthenosphere.

45

3 TYPES OF CONVERGENT PLATE

BOUNDARIES
OCEANIC-OCEANIC PLATE
BOUNDARY

CONTINENTALCONTINENTA
L PLATE
BOUNDARY

OCEANIC-CONTINENTAL
PLATE BOUNDARY

46

TYPES OF CONVERGENCE PLATE BOUNDARIES

Oceanic-oceanic plate boundary: An oceanic trench forms where

one oceanic plate is subducted beneath another. A
volcanic island form from the rising magma generated from
the subducting plate

Oceanic-Continental plate boundary: An andesitic volcanic

mountain range is form on the continental plate from the
rising magma generated from the subducting plate

Continental-Continental plate boundary: As the two continental

plates collide, a mountain range is formed in the interior of
a new and larger continent

TRANSFORM FAULT BOUNDARIES

(CONSERVATIVE MARGINS)
The transform (trans = across, forma = form)
fault mostly occur along fractures in the seafloor, where plates slide horizontally
past one another without the production or destruction of lithosphere.

Although lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed along

a transform boundary, the movement between plates results in a zone of
intensely shattered rock and numerous shallow-depth earthquakes.

Transform faults change one type of motion

between plates into another type of motion.

Most commonly, transform faults connect two oceanic ridge segments,

but they can also connect ridges to trenches and trenches to trenches.
50

Most transform faults connect two oceanic ridge segments

A transform faults can connect a ridge and a trench

A transform faults can also link two trenches

5 MINUTES BREAK

1.2.2 PROCESS OF GRADATION

2
PRO
CES
S
DEGRADATION

the erosion
results from
weathering of rock by
water, air and ice.

AGGRADATION

-deposition result in
accumulation of
sediment and
ultimate building
up of rock strata.

DEGRADATION AND AGGRADATION PROCESS

1.2.3 PROCESS OF VOLCANISM

Volcanism begins when magma created by the melting of pre-existing

rock in the Earths interior reaches the surface of the Earth.

Magma will erupt if it flows upward rapidly enough

the surface before it can cool and solidify.

57

A volcano is a vent in the earths crust through which molten rock

materials within the earth, lavas, ashes steam and gas are
ejected and responsible for the formation of plutonic
rocks, one solidified at great depth. Majority of volcanoes
are located along the margins of tectonic plates.

VOLCANO
ERUPTION

64

5 MAJOR TYPES OF VOLCANO

CINDER CONE

SHIELD VOLCANO

STRATOVOLCANO /
COMPOSITE VOLCANO

LAVA DOME /
VOLCANIC DOME

CALDERA
65

1) CINDER CONE

Accumulation of largely cinder-sized materials around the vent

Materials pile steeply and are not well cemented together

Not usually taller than 1000 feet

CROSS SECTION OF CINDER CONE

PARICUTIN CINDER CONE

VOLCANO IN MEXICO

Large, bowl shaped crater

at the summit of cinder cone

2) SHIELD VOLCANO

Huge collections of basaltic lavas associated with

mid-plate hot spots
Lava is low viscosity and flows well leaving volcano with low,
broad profile

Mauna Loa on Hawaii is an active shield volcano

that has erupted 33 times since 1843

3)STRATOVOLCANO / COMPOSITE
VOLCANO

Associates with sub-duction zones

i) Steep sided, symmetrical cones of

large dimension built of alternating layers
of lava, volcanic ash, cinders,
blocks and bombs
ii) may rise as much as 8000 feet
above their base

Cross section of
stratovolcano

Mayon volcano in Philippines.

Erupted 13 times during 1900s

4) LAVA DOME / VOLCANIC DOME

Steep-sided, bulbous masses of viscous magma

Composed of felsic magma and occasionally intermediate magma that

was forced upward under great pressure but was too viscous to flow

Dangerous because they erupt explosively

Lava domes are bulbous

masses of magma
that are emplaced in
craters of composite
volcano or stand
alone as irregularly
shaped mountains
flanked

Figure : Types of volcano in different height

5 MINUTES BREAK

1.3 GEOLOGICAL
TIME SCALE

1.3 GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

The geologic time scale is a hierarchical scale in which the 4.6 billion
year history of Earth is divided into time units of varying duration.

The geologic time scale subdivides geologic time into a hierarchy of

increasingly shorter time intervals: each time subdivision has a specific name.

The geologic time scale organizes all of Earth history into

blocks of time during which the planets major events occurred.

Geologists think about time in both relative and numerical terms.

78

TIME SCALE

2 TERMS

RELATIVE DATING

Various rocks exposed

within a
rock outcrop asks and answer
the questions

NUMERICAL / ABSOLUTE
DATING

Rocks answer the

question
How old?

Which rocks are older?

Which rocks are younger?

Younger rocks overlie

older rocks quite
logically the older rocks
had to be there first for
the younger

Rock dating
techniques
developed during the
twentieth
century, based on the constant
decay of radioactive
elements. The

1) RELATIVE DATING METHOD (6 FUNDAMENTAL

GEOLOGIC PRINCIPLE)

superposition: in an undisturbed sequence of sedimentary rocks, the

oldest rocks are on the bottom and the youngest rocks are on the top.
original horizontality: sediments are originally deposited horizontally
under the influence of gravity.
lateral continuity: a layer of sediment extends laterally in all directions until it thins
and pinches out or terminates against the edge of the depositional basin.
cross-cutting relationship: an igneous intrusion or a fault must be
younger than the rock it intrudes into or displaces.
inclusions: inclusions or the fragments of one rock contained within a layer of
another, are older than the rock layer itself.
fossil succession: fossil assemblages succeed one another through
time in a regular and predictable order.
80

An unconformity is a surface of erosion, non-deposition, or both

separating younger rocks from older rocks. These surfaces encompass
long periods of geologic time for which we have no geologic record at
that location.

3 TYPESOF UNCONFORMITIES

disconformity: a surface of erosion or

Non-deposition separating younger from

angular unconformity: an erosional

older rocks, both of which are parallel

surface on tilted or folded strata over

with one another

which younger rocks were deposited

nonconformity: an erosional surface cut into metamorphic or

igneous rocks that is covered by younger sedimentary rocks

81

2) NUMERICAL / ABSOLUTE METHOD

Although most of the isotopes of the 92 naturally occurring elements are stable,
some are radioactive and spontaneously decay to other more stable isotopes
of elements, releasing energy in the process.

By discovery of radioactivity, geologist had a tool to accurately date geologic

events, and show that Earth was indeed very old.

Radioactivity produces heat, Earths internal heat that did not rely
on residual cooling from a molten magma can be explain.

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