Perception and Learning

CHAPTER

Learning Objectives
In this chapter, you will:

Understand what perception is and why it is important.

Explain the perceptual process.
Identify common perceptual distortions.
Demonstrate specific applications in organizations.
Understand what learning is.
Learn about the brain and learning.
Explore how operant conditioning work.
Learn how to reinforce learning.

2.1

What is Perception?

Perception is the process of classifying,

interpreting and understanding an event or
individual.

2.2 Kelleys Theory of Causal

Attribution
People will believe others actions to be caused
by internal or external factors based on three
types of information: consensus, consistency
and distinctiveness.
Consensus: Information regarding the extent to which
other people behave in the same manner as the
person being judged.
Consistency: Information regarding the extent to which
the person being judged acts the same way at other
times.
Distinctiveness: Information regarding the extent to
which a person behaves in the same manner in other
contexts.

2.3 Misperceptions and Biases

Are our perceptions without error or bias?
We run the risk of biasness in our perceptual
process, therefore it would be good to be aware
of such biases:
Fundamental attribution
error
Self-serving bias
Selective perception
Halo effect

Contrast effect
Similar-to-me effect
Projection
Stereotyping

2.3.1 Fundamental Attribution

Error
Making erroneous judgement about
the behaviour of others.
Tendency to underestimate and
ignore the importance of external
factors that may influence ones
behaviour, or vice versa to
attribute ones actions to internal
factors.

2.3.2 Self-Serving Bias

The tendency of attributing
certain events to themselves
(internal) and blaming others
(external) for particular events
or incidents.

2.3.3 Selective Perception

The tendency to focus on a particular
aspect and ignoring others when
encountering another person or
situation.
Selective perception may have positive
or negative impact on the person
being perceived depending on what
the perceiver is focused on.

2.3.4 Halo Effect

The tendency to draw a general
impression based on a single
characteristic, e.g. appearance,
intelligence, etc.

2.3.5 Contrast Effect

Making comparisons with other
people who performed either better or
worse than the one you are
evaluating.
For example, watch reality shows like
Akademi Fantasia, One in A Million,
Gang Stars or Mentor. How do you
evaluate a performer based on the
one before him or her.

2.3.6 Similar-to-me Effect

The tendency to gravitate to
those similar to us or see them
in a more positive light
compared to those who are
different.

2.3.7 Projection
The tendency to perceive or evaluate
other individuals based on our
assessment of ourselves.

2.3.8 Stereotyping
Beliefs that all members of a
specific group have similar
characteristics and tend to
behave in the same way.

2.4 How to Overcome

Misperceptions or Biases
We need to identify our stereotypes and hold
them in check when dealing with different
individuals.
In evaluating people, it should be based on
objective factors and not just one or two
criteria.
We also have to avoid making rash judgements
without considering all relevant factors.
Being aware of our biases help us to
understand the shortcomings of our
misperceptions.

2.5 Learning
When we make perceptions about others, it
is one of the many ways of learning from
and about the environment around us.
Learning help us make sense of the
behaviours as well as acquire new
knowledge in the organization, and we
subsequently emulate or adopt these
behaviours.
Learning is a relatively permanent change
in behaviour.

2.6 The Brain and Learning

The human brain is located
in the skull.
It is a white greyish matter.
It weighs about 3 pounds.
It is full of creases.
It is divided into two
hemispheres.
Each hemisphere or
cerebrum is divided into
four lobes, namely,
occipital, frontal, parietal
and temporal lobes.

2.6.1 The Four Lobes

The frontal lobe is involved in

purposeful acts like judgement,
creativity, problem-solving and
planning.
The parietal lobe is involved in
processing higher sensory and
language functions.
The left and right temporal lobes
are responsible for hearing,
memory, meaning and language.
The occipital lobe is involved in
vision.
There are some overlaps in
functions between lobes.

http:www.pbs.org/wnet/brain/3d/index.html

2.6.2 Left- and Right-Brain

Learning Model
Left-brain dominant
learners

Prefer things in sequence

Learn best from parts to
wholes

Right-brain dominant
learners

More comfortable with

randomness
Learn best from wholes to
parts

Prefer a phonetic reading

system

Prefer a whole-language
reading system

Like words, symbols and

letters

Like pictures, graphs and

charts

2.6.2 Left- and Right-Brain

Learning Model (cont.)
Left-brain dominant
learners

Right-brain dominant
learners

Rather read about a

subject first

Rather see it or experience

a subject first

Want to gather related

factual information

Want to gather information

about relationships among
things

Prefer detailed orderly

instructions

Prefer spontaneous, go
with the flow, learning
environments

2.6.2 Left- and Right-Brain

Learning Model (cont.)
Left-brain dominant
learners

Experience more internal

focus
Want structure and
predictability

Right-brain dominant
learners

Experience more external

focus
Want open-ended
approaches, novelty and
surprises

Source: Jensen, E (2000), Brain-Based Learning: The New Science of

Teaching and Training, San Diego, CA: The Brain Store.

2.6.3 The 12 Brain/Mind

Learning Principles

The brain is a complex adaptive system.

The brain is a social brain.

The search for meaning is innate.

The search for meaning occurs through patterning.

Emotions are critical to patterning.

Every brain simultaneously perceives and creates

parts and wholes.

Learning involves both focused attention and

peripheral attention.

2.6.3

The 12 Brain/Mind Learning

Principles (cont.)

Learning always involves conscious and

unconscious processes.
We have at least two ways of organizing
memory.
Learning is developmental.
Complex learning is enhanced by challenge and
inhibited by threat.
Every brain is uniquely organized.
Canine, RN and Canine, G (1994), Making Connections:
Teaching and the Human Brain, Revised edition, Dale
Seymour Publications.

2.6.4 Brain-Based Learning

Jensen (2000) espoused the concept of brainbased learning as a way of thinking about the
learning process using a set of principles, and
a base of knowledge and skills upon which
better decisions about the learning process
can be made.
This challenges the current practices of
training whereby usually it is either instructorled or student-centered, hence not focusing
on how the brain processes information.

2.7 Learning Styles

Kolbs learning style inventory: The model
suggests the individuals have different
learning styles but follow a cycle of
experiential learning that is applicable to all.
The four stage cycle of learning comprised
of:
Concrete experiences (CE)
Reflective observation (RO)
Abstract conceptualization (AC)
Active experimentation (AE)

2.7.1 Kolbs Learning Style

Concrete Experiences (CE)
(Feeling)
Active
Experimentation
(AE)
(Doing)

Accommodating
CE/AE
(Doing &
Feeling)

Diverging
CE/RO
(Feeling &
Watching)

Converging
AC/AE
(Doing &
Thinking)

Assimilating
AC/RO
(Watching &
Thinking)

Abstract Conceptualization (AC)

(Thinking)

Reflective
Observation
(RO)
(Watching)

2.8

Operant Conditioning

Alfred Bandura proposes that humans can

be conditioned to learn or do certain things.
Using the concept of stimulus-response (SR), a person can be motivated to do an
action (stimulus) and he will receive the
feedback on his action (response)
accordingly.

2.8

Operant Conditioning (cont.)

Operant conditioning: A form of

learning in which individuals
associate the consequences of
their actions with the actions
themselves. The consequences can
be either positive or negative:
Behaviour that receive positive
consequences get acquired.
Behaviour with negative

2.9 Reinforcement Theory

Outcomes or
Desired
Consequences

Undesired

Extinction

Positive
Reinforcement

Punishment

Negative
Reinforcement

Undesired

Desired
Behaviour

2.9.1 Using Reinforcement

According to the reinforcement theory, we
can reinforce learning either by making
people sustain, reduce or stop certain
behaviours. There are four ways of reinforcing
learning:
Positive reinforcement: People learn to perform behaviours
that lead to the presentation of desired outcomes.
Negative reinforcement: People learn to perform acts that
lead to the removal of undesired events.
Punishment: It decreases undesirable behaviour by following
it with undesirable consequences.
Extinction, whereby responses that are no longer reinforced
tend to gradually diminish in strength.

2.9.2

How to Use Reinforcement

As managers, we need to know when and

what reinforcement strategy to use in
encouraging our subordinates to perform
and to reinforce or shape their learning.
Organization behaviour modification
(OBM) employ positive reinforcement to
shape the behaviour of individuals as
they learn the appropriate or desired
behaviours.

2.10

Revision Questions

1. What is perception?
2. What are the factors that influence
perception?
3. How do you use Kellys attribution theory
to explain perception?
4. What are common misperceptions?
5. What parts of the brain control learning?
6. How does operant conditioning work?
7. How do you reinforce learning?