Op Amp

ENGR.
Ghulam Hussain
B.E
(ELECTRONICS)
MUET JAMSHORO, SINDH, PAKISTAN.
BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain
History of the Op-Amp

Before the Op-Amp: Harold S. Black develops
the feedback amplifier for the Western
Electric Company (1920-1930)
Forward
Gain
Input
Output

The
Vacuum Tube Age

The First Op-Amp: (1930 1940) Designed
by Karl Swartzel for the Bell Labs M9 gun
director
Uses 3 vacuum tubes, only one input, and
350 V to attain a gain of 90 dB
Loebe Julie then develops an Op-Amp with
two inputs: Inverting and Non-inverting

The
end of Vacuum Tubes was built

up during the 1950s-1960s to the
advent of solid-state electronics
1.The
Transistor
2.The Integrated Circuit
3.The Planar Process

1960s:
beginning of the Solid State

Op-Amp
Operational Amplifier Basics

As
well as resistors and capacitors,Operational

Amplifiers, orOp-ampsas they are more commonly
called, are one of the basic building blocks of
Analogue Electronic Circuits.
Operational
amplifiersare linear devices.
that
have all the properties required for nearly

ideal DC amplification.
Used
extensively in
signal conditioning
Filtering
or to perform mathematical operations such
as add, subtract, integration and
differentiation.
An
Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

is an integrated circuit that uses
external voltage to amplify the input
through a very high gain.
What is an Op-Amp? The

Layout
There
are 8 pins in a common

Op-Amp, like the 741 which is
used in many instructional
courses.
What is an Op-Amp? The

Inside
The
actual count varies, but an

Op-Amp contains several
Transistors, Resistors, and a few
Capacitors and Diodes.
10
Ideal Op-Amp
An
idealOperational Amplifieris
basically a three-terminal device
which consists of two high
impedance inputs,
theInverting Input, marked with a
negative or minus sign, (-)
the other one called theNoninverting Input, marked with a
positive or plus sign (+).
The third terminal represents
theOperational Amplifieroutput port
which can both sink and
source either a11
Noninverting
+
Input
Output
Inverting
Input
12
linear operational
amplifier
In linear op-amp output signal is the amplification

factor, known as the amplifiers gain (A) multiplied
by the value of the input signal and depending on
the nature of these input and output signals.
different classifications of operational amplifier gain.
VoltageVoltage in and Voltage out

CurrentCurrent in and Current out
TransconductanceVoltage in and Current
out
TransresistanceCurrent in and Voltage out
13
Equivalent Circuit for Ideal Operational Amplifiers
14
Op-amp Parameter and Idealized Characteristic
V1
Open
Loop Gain, (Avo) V2
Vo
Infinite The main function of an operational

amplifier is to amplify the input signal and
the more open loop gain it has the better.
Open-loop gain is the gain of the op-amp
without positive or negative feedback and for
an ideal amplifier the gain will be infinite but
typical real values range from about 20,000
to 200,000.
- Equal to differential gain
- Zero common-mode gain
15
Input impedance, (Zin)

Infinite
Input impedance is the ratio

of input voltage to input current and is
assumed to be infinite to prevent any
current flowing from the source supply
into the amplifiers input circuitry (Iin
= 0).
Real op-amps have input leakage
currents from a few pico-amps to a
i
1~0
few milli-amps.+
i2~0
Vo
16
Output impedance, (Zout)

Zero
The output impedance of the

ideal operational amplifier is assumed
to be zero.
acting as a perfect internal voltage source

with no internal resistance so that it can
supply as much current as necessary to the
load.
This internal resistance is effectively in
series with the load thereby reducing the
output voltage available to the load.
Rout
Real op-amps have output
impedances in
Vo'
Rload
the 100-20k range.
17
Bandwidth, (BW)
Infinite
An ideal operational amplifier has

an infinite frequency response
and can amplify any frequency signal from DC to

the highest AC frequencies so it is therefore
assumed to have an infinite bandwidth.
With real op-amps, the bandwidth is limited by
the Gain-Bandwidth product (GB), which is equal
to the frequency where the amplifiers gain
becomes unity.
Unity Gain frequency f1: the gain at unity
Cutoff frequency fc: the gain drop by 3dB from dc
gain Gd. GB Product : f = G f
18
Frequency-Gain Relation
(Voltage Gain)
Gd
0.707Gd
20log(0.707)=3
dB
1
0
fc
f1
(frequency)
19
Offset Voltage, (Vio)

Zero
The amplifiers output will be

zero when the voltage difference
between the inverting and the noninverting inputs is zero, the same or
when both inputs are grounded.
Real
op-amps have some amount of output

offset voltage.
20
TheVoltage
Gain(AV) of the
operational amplifier can be
found using the following
formula:
and
inDecibelsor (dB) is given
as:
21
An Operational Amplifiers Bandwidth

The
operational amplifiers bandwidth is the

frequency range over which the voltage gain
of the amplifier is above70.7%or3dB(where 0dB is the maximum) of its
maximum output value as shown below.
22
Operational Amplifier Example No1.

Using
the formula20log(A), we can

calculate the bandwidth of the amplifier
as:
37 = 20logA therefore,
- A = anti-log (3720)=70.8
GBPA = Bandwidth,therefore,
1,000,00070.8 = 14,124Hz, or 14kHz
Then the bandwidth of the amplifier at
a gain of 40dB is given as14kHzas
previously predicted from the graph.
23
GB Product
Example:
Determine the cutoff frequency of

an op-amp having a unit gain frequency f1 =
10 MHz and voltage differential gain Gd =
20V/mV
(Voltage Gain)
Sol:
Since f1 = 10 MHz
? Hz
Gd
0.707Gd
By using GB production equation
f 1 = Gd f c
10MHz
fc = f1 / Gd = 10 MHz / 20 V/mV
1
= 10 106 / 20 103
= 500 Hz
fc
f1
(frequency)
24
Single-Ended Input
+
~ Vi
+ terminal :
Source
terminal :
Ground
0o phase change
+ terminal :
Ground
terminal :
Source
180o phase
change
25
Double-Ended Input
V
Differential input
0o phase shift change
~ V1
~
between Vo and Vd
Vd V V
Qu: What Vo should

be if, V2
Ans: (A or B) ?
(A)
(B)
26
Distortion
+V =+5V
cc
+5V
o
0
5V
V =5V
cc
The output voltage never excess the DC

voltage supply of the Op-Amp
27
Common-Mode
Operation
Same voltage source is applied +
at both terminals
Ideally, two input are equally

Vi ~
amplified
Output voltage is ideally zero

due to differential voltage is
Note for differential circuits:
zero
Opposite inputs : highly amplifie
Common inputs : slightly amplifi

Practically, a small output
Common-Mode Rejection
signal can still be measured
28
Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

(CMRR)
In
real amplifiers there is always some variation and

the ratio of the change to the output voltage with
regards to the change in the common mode input
voltage.
Differential voltage input :
Vd V V
Common voltage input :
Noninverting
+
Input
Output
Inverting
Input
1
(V V )
2
Output voltage : Common-mode rejection ratio:
Vc
V0 GdVd GcVc
Gd : Differential gain Note:
Gc : Common mode gain
CMMR
Gd
G
20 log10 d (dB)
Gc
Gc
29
Ideal Vs Practical Op-Amp

Ideal
Practical
Open Loop gain A
105
Bandwidth BW
10-100Hz
Input Impedance Zin
>1M
10-100
Output Impedance Zout

Output Voltage Vout
Depends only
on Vd =
(V+V)
Differential
mode signal
CMRR
Vin
+ AVin
Ideal op-amp
Zout=0
Depends slightly
on average input
Vc = (V++V)/2
Common-Mode
signal
Vin
Zin
Vout
Practical op-amp
Zout
~
Vout
AVin
10-100dB
30
Inverting Operational Amplifier

Why
we use Inverting Operational Amplifier?
theOpen
Loop Gain, (Avo) of an ideal

operational amplifier can be very high, as
much as 1,000,000 (120dB) or more.
this
very high gain is of no real use to us as

it makes the amplifier both unstable and
hard to control as the smallest of input
signals, just a few micro-volts, (V) would be
enough to cause the output voltage to
saturate and swing towards one or the other
of the voltage supply rails losing complete
control of the output.
31
As
the open loop DC gain of anoperational

amplifiers is extremely high;
we can therefore afford to lose some of this high gain by
connecting a suitable resistor across the amplifier from
the output terminal back to the inverting input terminal to
both reduce and control the overall gain of the amplifier.
This then produces and effect known commonly as
Negative Feedback, and thus produces a very stable
Operational Amplifier based system.
we must feed it back to the negative or inverting input
terminal of the op-amp using an externalFeedback
ResistorcalledR.
This feedback connection between the output and the
inverting input terminal forces the differential input
voltage towards zero.
32
33
closed-loop inverting amplifier uses negative

feedback to accurately control the overall gain of
the amplifier, but at a cost in the reduction of the
amplifiers gain.
34
there
are two very important rules

to remember aboutInverting
Amplifiersor any operational
amplifier;
1.No
Current Flows into the Input Terminals

2.The Differential Input Voltage is Zero as V1 =
V2 = 0(Virtual
Earth)
Closed-Loop
Voltage Gainof an
Inverting Amplifier is;
35
36
The
negative sign in the equation indicates an

inversion of the output signal with respect to the
input as it is 180oout of phase.
This is due to the feedback being negative in value.
- Application of an inverting amplifier is that of a

transresistance amplifier circuit.
- A Transresistance Amplifieralso known as a
transimpedance amplifier,
- is basically a current-to-voltage converter
(Current in and Voltage out).
- They can be used in low-power applications to
convert a very small current generated by a
photo-diode or photo-detecting device etc, into
a usable output voltage which is proportional to
the input current.
37
Transresistance Amplifier Circuit
38
Inverting Op-amp Example No1

Find the closed loop gain of the following
inverting amplifier circuit.
39
gain
of the circuit;
we
can now substitute the values of

the resistors in the circuit as follows,
Rin = 10kandR = 100k.
and the gain of the circuit is
calculated as -R/Rin = -100k/10k
= -10.
therefore,
the closed loop gain of the inverting

amplifier circuit above is given10or20dB(20log(10)).
40
Inverting Op-amp Example No2

The
gain of the original circuit is to be increased

to40(32dB), find the new values of the resistors required.
Assume
that the input resistor is to remain at the same

value of10K, then by re-arranging the closed loop voltage
gain formula we can find the new value required for the
feedback resistorR.
Gain
= -R/Rin
therefore,R
= Gain x Rin
= 40 x 10,000
R = 400,000 or 400K
The
new values of resistors required for the circuit to have a

gain of40would be,
41
Rin
= 10KandR = 400K.
The
formula could also be

rearranged to give a new value
ofRin, keeping the same value ofR.
42
In
theInverting
Amplifierconfiguration for an
operational amplifier,
if the two resistors are of equal value,Rin =
Rthen the gain of the amplifier will be1producing a complementary form of the input
voltage at its output asVout = -Vin.
This type of inverting amplifier configuration is
generally called aUnity Gain Inverterof
simply anInverting Buffer.
43
The Non-inverting Operational Amplifier

In
this configuration, the input voltage signal,

(Vin) is applied directly to the non-inverting
(+) input terminal which means that the output
gain of the amplifier becomes Positive in
value.
the
output signal is in-phase with the input

signal.
Feedback
control of the
Non-inverting Operational Amplifier is achieved
by applying a small part of the output voltage
signal back to the inverting (-) input terminal
via aR R2voltage divider network, again
producing negative feedback.
44
This
closed-loop configuration
produces a non-inverting amplifier
circuit with;
very good stability,
a very high input
impedance,Rinapproaching infinity,
as no current flows into the positive
input terminal, (ideal conditions)
and a low output impedance,Rout.
45
46
Equivalent Potential Divider Network
47
we
can calculate the closed-loop

voltage gain (AV) of theNoninverting Amplifieras follows:
48
Closed
loop voltage gain of a noninverting amplifier is;
49
the
overall closed-loop gain of a noninverting amplifier will always be greater

but never less than one (unity), it is
positive in nature and is determined by
the ratio of the values ofRandR2.
If the value of the feedback resistorRis
zero, the gain of the amplifier will be
exactly equal to one (unity).
If resistorR2is zero the gain will
approach infinity,
but in practice it will be limited to the
operational amplifiers open-loop
differential gain, (Ao).
50
Voltage Follower (Unity Gain Buffer)
If
we made the feedback

resistor,Requal to zero, (R=0),
and resistorR2equal to infinity,
(R2=), then the circuit would
have a fixed gain of 1 as all the
output voltage would be present on
the inverting input terminal
(negative feedback). This would then
produce a special type of the noninverting amplifier circuit called
aVoltage Followeror also called a
51
As
the input signal is connected

directly to the non-inverting input of
the amplifier the output signal is not
inverted resulting in the output
voltage being equal to the input
voltage,Vout = Vin. This then makes
thevoltage followercircuit ideal
as aUnity Gain Buffercircuit
because of its isolation properties.
52
Advantage of the unity gain voltage

follower
it
can be used when impedance matching or

circuit isolation is more important than
amplification as it maintains the signal
voltage
The
input impedance of the voltage follower

circuit is very high, typically above 1M as it
is equal to that of the operational amplifiers
input resistance times its gain (RinxAo).
its
output impedance is very low.

53
Non-inverting Voltage Follower
54
In
this non-inverting circuit

configuration,
the input impedanceRinhas increased
to infinity and the feedback
impedanceRreduced to zero.
The output is connected directly back to
the negative inverting input so the
feedback is 100% andVinis exactly
equal toVoutgiving it a fixed gain
of1or unity.
55
Since
no current flows into the noninverting input terminal the input

impedance is infinite (ideal op-amp)
and also no current flows through the
feedback loop so any value of
resistance may be placed in the
feedback loop without affecting the
characteristics of the circuit as no
voltage is dissipated across it, zero
current flows, zero voltage drop, zero
power loss.
56
The Voltage Adder/Summing Amplifier

If
we add more input resistors to the

input, each equal in value to the
original input resistor,Rinwe end up
with another operational amplifier
circuit called aSumming Amplifier,
summing inverter or even a
voltage adder circuit.
57
58
The
output voltage, (Vout) now

becomes proportional to the sum of
the input voltages,V1,V2,V3etc.
59
if
all the input impedances, (Rin)

are equal in value, we can simplify
the above equation to give an output
voltage of:
60
AScaling
Summing Amplifiercan
be made if the individual input
resistors are NOT equal. Then the
equation would have to be modified
to:
61
If
the input resistors are equal in

value then the summed output
voltage is as given and the gain
is+1.
If
the input resistors are unequal

then the output voltage is a
weighted sum of the input signal.
62
Summing
Amplifier Example:-
Find the output voltage of the followingSumming

Amplifiercircuit.
63
64
The Voltage Subtractor

The
Subtractor also called a difference

amplifier, uses both the inverting and noninverting inputs to produce an output
signal which is proportional to the
difference between the two input
voltagesV1andV2.
More inputs can be subtracted.
Resistances are equal (R = RandRA = RA)
then the output voltage is as given and
the gain is+1.
If the input resistance are unequal the
circuit becomes a differential amplifier.
65
66
DAY
2
67
Op-amp Integrator Circuit
68
TheOp-amp
Integratoris an
Operational Amplifiercircuit that performs the
mathematical operation ofIntegration, that
is we can cause the output to respond to
changes in the input voltage over time as the
op-amp integrator produces anoutput voltage
which is proportional to the integral of the
input voltage.
In
other words the magnitude of the output

signal is determined by the length of time a
voltage is present at its input as the current
through the feedback loop charges or
discharges the capacitor as the required
negative feedback occurs through the
capacitor.
69
When
a step voltage,Vinis firstly applied to

the input of an integrating amplifier, the
uncharged capacitorChas very little
resistance and acts a bit like a short circuit
allowing maximum current to flow via the input
resistor,Rinas potential difference exists
between the two plates.
No
current flows into the amplifiers input and

pointXis a virtual earth resulting in zero
output.
As
the impedance of the capacitor at this point

is very low, the gain ratio ofXc/Rinis also very
small giving an overall voltage gain of less
than one, ( voltage follower circuit ).
70
As
the feedback capacitor,Cbegins to

charge up due to the influence of the
input voltage, its impedanceXcslowly
increase in proportion to its rate of
charge.
The
capacitor charges up at a rate

determined by the RC time constant, ()
of the series RC network.
Negative
feedback forces the op-amp to

produce an output voltage that maintains
a virtual earth at the op-amps inverting
input.
71
Since
the capacitor is connected between

the op-amps inverting input (which is at
earth potential) and the op-amps output
(which is negative), the potential
voltage,Vcdeveloped across the
capacitor slowly increases causing the
charging current to decrease as the
impedance of the capacitor increases.
This
results in the ratio

ofXc/Rinincreasing producing a linearly
increasing ramp output voltage that
continues to increase until the capacitor is
fully charged.
72
At
this point the capacitor acts as an open

circuit, blocking any more flow of DC current.
The
ratio of feedback capacitor to input

resistor (Xc/Rin) is now infinite resulting in
infinite gain.
The
result of this high gain (similar to the opamps open-loop gain), is that the output of the
amplifier goes into saturation as shown below.
(Saturation
occurs when the output voltage of

the amplifier swings heavily to one voltage
supply rail or the other with little or no control
in between).
73
74
The
rate at which the output voltage

increases (the rate of change) is
determined by the value of the resistor
and the capacitor, RC time constant.
By
changing thisRCtime constant value,

either by changing the value of the
Capacitor,Cor the Resistor,R, the time in
which it takes the output voltage to reach
saturation can also be changed for
example.
75
If
we apply a constantly changing input

signal such as a square wave to the input
of anIntegrator Amplifierthen the
capacitor will charge and discharge in
response to changes in the input signal.
This results in the output signal being that
of a sawtooth waveform whose frequency
is dependant upon theRCtime constant
of the resistor/capacitor combination.
76
the
voltage on the plates of a capacitor is

equal to the charge on the capacitor
divided by its capacitance givingQ/C.
Then the voltage across the capacitor is
output Vouttherefore:
-Vout=Q/C.
If the capacitor is charging and
discharging, the rate of charge of voltage
across the capacitor is given as:
77
ButdQ/dtis
electric current and since the

node voltage of the integrating op-amp at
its inverting input terminal is zero,X = 0,
the input currentI(in)flowing through the
input resistor,Rinis given as:
78
The
current flowing through the

feedback capacitorCis given as:
79
Assuming
that the input impedance of the

op-amp is infinite (ideal op-amp), no
current flows into the op-amp terminal.
Therefore, the nodal equation at the
inverting input terminal is given as:
80
From
which we derive an ideal

voltage output for theOp-amp
Integratoras:
81
The Op-amp Differentiator Amplifier

ThisOperational
Amplifiercircuit performs the

mathematical operation ofDifferentiation, that
is it produces a voltage output which is directly
proportional to the input voltages rate-of-change
with respect to time.
In other words the faster or larger the change to

the input voltage signal, the greater the input
current, the greater will be the output voltage
change in response, becoming more of a spike
in shape.
82
83
The
input signal to the differentiator is applied to

the capacitor.
The capacitor blocks any DC content so there is

no current flow to the amplifier summing
point,Xresulting in zero output voltage.
The capacitor only allows AC type input voltage

changes to pass through and whose frequency is
dependant on the rate of change of the input
signal.
At
low frequencies the reactance of the capacitor

is High resulting in a low gain (R/Xc) and low
output voltage from the op-amp.
84
At
higher frequencies the reactance of the

capacitor is much lower resulting in a higher gain
and higher output voltage from the differentiator
amplifier.
At
high frequencies an op-amp differentiator circuit

becomes unstable and will start to oscillate.
To
avoid this the high frequency gain of the circuit

needs to be reduced by adding an additional small
value capacitor across the feedback resistorR.
Since
the node voltage of the operational amplifier

at its inverting input terminal is zero, the
current,iflowing through the capacitor will be
given as:
85
The
charge on the capacitor equals Capacitance

x Voltage across the capacitor,
The
rate of change of this charge is
butdQ/dtis
the capacitor currenti
86
from
which we have an ideal voltage output for

the op-amp differentiator is given as:
TheOp-amp
Differentiatorcircuit
in its basic form has two main
disadvantages:
One is that it suffers from instability at high
frequencies as mentioned above,
and the other is that the capacitive input
makes it very susceptible to random noise
signals and any noise or harmonics present in
the source circuit will be amplified more than
the input signal itself.
87
Op-amp Differentiator Waveforms
88
Slew Rate of Op-Amp

The
slew rate of an op-amp is a

measure of how fast the output
voltage can change in response to
an input signal.
The
slew rate of the A741is

0.5V/s(typical)
This
means that the output from this

amplifier can change by 0.5V every
89
Since
frequency is related to time, the slew rate can

be used to determine the maximum operating
frequency of the op-amp.
SR = 2fVo(max) where SR is the slew rate
f is the frequency in Hz
Slew
Rate is independent of the closed-loop gain of

the op amp.
Example:
Given: SR = 500 kV/s and vo = 12 V (Vo(max) = 12V)
Find: The t and f.
Solution:
t = vo / SR = (10 V) / (5x105 V/s) = 2x10-5 s
f = SR / 2Vo(max) = (5x105 V/s) / (2 * 12) = 6,630
Hz
90
OP-AMPS AS COMPARATORS
A
comparator is an circuit that compares two

input voltages. One voltage is called the
reference voltage (Vref) and the other is called
the input voltage (Vin).
WhenVinrises above or falls belowVrefthe
output changes polarity (+ becomes -).
Positiveis sometimes calledHIGH.
Negativeis sometimes calledLOW.
91
Input voltage
Output voltage
Less than reference

voltage
Negative
Equal to reference
voltage
Zero
Greater than reference

voltage
Positive
92
If
the input goes more positive than the

reference voltage set by the voltage
divider,Vin>Vref, the output changes state.
When
the input voltage drops below the preset

reference voltage and Vin<Vref, the output
switches back.
93
Schmitt Trigger
History
The Schmitt Trigger was first invented from

Otto H. Schmitt in the 1934.
By that time, Otto Schmitt was a student.
In the year 1937, he published his
invention in his doctoral.
The name he gave was "thermionic trigger"
94
Schmitt Trigger
The
Schmitt trigger has found many applications

in numerous circuits, both analog and digital.
The
versatility of a TTL Schmitt is hampered by its

narrow supply range, limited interface capability,
low input impedance and unbalanced output
characteristics.
The
Schmitt trigger could be built from discrete

devices to satisfy a particular parameter, but this
is a careful and sometimes time-consuming
design.
A Schmitt trigger circuit is also called a
regenerative comparator circuit.
95
Symbols
There
are basically two symbols for the Schmitt

Trigger.
The
symbol is a triangle with an input and an

output, just like the one used for the noninverting buffers. Inside there is the hysteresis
symbol. Depending on the type of Schmitt
Trigger, inverting or non-inverting (standard), the
hysteresis curve sign differs.
96
97
Schmitt
trigger A voltage-level detector.
The
Schmitt Trigger is a type of comparator with two

different threshold voltage levels.
Whenever the input voltage goes over theHigh Threshold
Level, the output of the comparator is switched HIGH (if is
a standard ST) or LOW (if is an inverting ST).
The output will remain in this state, as long as the input
voltage is above the second threshold level, theLow
Threshold Level.
When the input voltage goes below this level, the output of
the Schmitt Trigger will switch.
The HIGH and LOW output voltages are actually the
POSITIVE and NEGATIVE power supply voltages of the
comparator.
The comparator needs to have positive and negative power
supply (like + and -) to operate as a Schmitt Trigger
normally. The following drawing shows how a Schmitt
Trigger would react to an AC voltage input:
98
99
The simplest Schmitt Trigger using

OP-Amp
10
When
the non-inverting input (+) is higher than

the inverting input (-), the comparator output
switches to thePOSITIVEvoltage supply.
On the contrary, the non-inverting input (+) is
lower than the inverting input (-), the output
switches to theNEGATIVEvoltage supply.
The inverting input (-) is grounded, so someone
would expect that the turn-on and off point
would be the ground (0).
The function of the ST comes from the feedback
resistor RFB.
When
for example the output of the comparator

is to thePOSITIVEvoltage supply, then the noninverting input has through the RFBthis voltage!
The
same happens when the output is to

theNEGATIVEpower supply.
10
the
formula to calculate the

threshold voltage is:
VTHRESHOLD VSUPPLY
So,
R1
RFB R1
if the output is to the POSITIVE voltage, the

required negative voltage that must be applied
to Vin is:
VINPUT<= - VTHRESHOLD
If
the output is to the NEGATIVE voltage, the

required positive voltage that must be applied to
Vin is:
VINPUT>= VTHRESHOLD
10
Inverting Schmitt Trigger
10
Trigger Point Voltages

Trigger
point voltages may be equal or unequal

in magnitude, and are opposite in polarity.
10
Hysteresis
Hysteresis
A term that is often used to

describe the range of voltages between the
UTP and LTP of a Schmitt trigger.
10
Applications of Schmitt
Trigger
Schmitt trigger is mostly used to convert a very
slowly varying input voltage into an output having
abruptly varying waveform occurring precisely at
certain predetermined value of input voltage.
Schmitt trigger may be used for all applications for
which a general comparator is used.
Any type of input voltage can be converted into its
corresponding square signal wave.
The only condition is that the input signal must
have large enough excursion to carry the input
voltage beyond the limits of the hysteresis range.
The amplitude of the square wave is independent
of the peak-to-peak value of the input waveform.
10

Op Amp

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Descrizione originale:

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Op Amp

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

ENGR.

MUET JAMSHORO, SINDH, PAKISTAN.

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

History of the Op-Amp

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

History of the Op-Amp

Vacuum Tube Age

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

History of the Op-Amp

end of Vacuum Tubes was built

History of the Op-Amp

beginning of the Solid State

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

Operational Amplifier Basics

well as resistors and capacitors,Operational

amplifiersare linear devices.

have all the properties required for nearly

Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp)

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

What is an Op-Amp? The

are 8 pins in a common

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

What is an Op-Amp? The

actual count varies, but an

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

In linear op-amp output signal is the amplification

VoltageVoltage in and Voltage out

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

Equivalent Circuit for Ideal Operational Amplifiers

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

Op-amp Parameter and Idealized Characteristic

Loop Gain, (Avo) V2

Infinite The main function of an operational

Input impedance, (Zin)

Input impedance is the ratio

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

Output impedance, (Zout)

The output impedance of the

acting as a perfect internal voltage source

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

An ideal operational amplifier has

and can amplify any frequency signal from DC to

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

Offset Voltage, (Vio)

The amplifiers output will be

op-amps have some amount of output

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

inDecibelsor (dB) is given

An Operational Amplifiers Bandwidth

operational amplifiers bandwidth is the

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

Operational Amplifier Example No1.

the formula20log(A), we can

Determine the cutoff frequency of

By using GB production equation

BY. ENGR. Ghulam Hussain

0o phase shift change

Qu: What Vo should

The output voltage never excess the DC