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Introduction to Wine
Lesson Overview
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4.
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
Introduction
The production of wine
Producing alcohol from grapes
The components and flavours of wine
The main stages of wine production
Labelling
Tasting wine
Sparkling wine
Wine and food
Storing wine
Summary / Conclusion
References
3.1 Introduction
3.1 Introduction
(continued)
The ancient world: earliest piece of solid evidence is a wine stain found in Iran on a Persian amphora dated around
3500BC, earliest mention around the Mediterranean is around 1500BC by the Greeks & Phoenicians who colonized this
whole region, the Romans domesticated it and extended its growth throughout Europe , from 5th century they left the
foundations for the famous French vineyards of the modern world.
The middle ages: the medieval period rises, the Church was repository of skills of civilization in the dark ages, monks
understood that the slopes of hills, were better locations for vineyards, they developed the art of selecting the vine
Stock to suit the ground conditions, (the greatest oenologist Benedictine Monk Dom Perignon although blind while based
at Haut Villiers Abbey perfects (Champagne) luxurious, the aristocracy would beg for it in this period. Cultivation of the
Vine helps to provide sustainable economic stability for many countries.
17th century onwards: Change in tastes chocolate (Central America), coffee (Arabia) tea (China), These new
beverages all challenged wine and it needed change. The drive for quality and innovation in wine begins and into the
20th century and with the advances brought about through the industrial revolution and scientific discoveries wine
flourishes.
1863 Louis Pasteur pasteurisation.
3.2
Wine growing areas: Vines grow in two bands North and South of the equator between the 30-50
degrees latitude bands which usually contain a moderate temperature climate.
Wine production: two thirds of all wines are grown in Europe, one third are grown in the New World
(Chile, Argentina, Australia, South Africa, United States and New Zealand).
The climate, soil, grape, viticulture, vinification, luck of the year all contribute to what you get in
the glass
Climate: all vines require an average annual temperature ranging from 10 to 14 degrees Celsius, sufficient moisture
either in the form of rainfall or through irrigation and an average of seven hours of sunshine daily during the
ripening period.
Soil: the deeper the roots go, into the soil the more constant is their environment, therefore they are less subject to
the ravages of floods or drought. Vines with roots for example 300 metres down gain potassium and iron, which
gives great complexity and quality to the wine.
Grape: Vitis Vinifera (V.V) vine produces 3,000 noble grape varieties. V.V is the only vine variety allowed to produce
wines, which are sold in the E.U. Major red and white grape varieties (Chapter 3 pp. 53-56)
Viticulture: the wine-makers practices (i.e. crops less than 8 years old are usually not used), less quality
Vinification: both red and white grapes are used to make wines. The juice of grapes will yield juice that is relatively
without much colour
Luck of the Year: Hallstorms - may rip the young shoots apart or even destroy the vines and reduce the yield.
Strong winds, particularly during the flowering season, when the pollen to be taken by insects from flower to flower
or by light winds for fertilisation, can be blown away in a gale and the grapes may not form. Rainfall, can improve to
be a blessing or a curse to the wine-maker. During summer, light rainfall is desired but if heavy rains come during
the autumn months near harvest, this tends to dilute the concentration of flavours (for example in 1984 and 1987 in
France).
The grape contains everything required for making alcohol either inside or on the skin. Once the
skin is broken (the grapes are crushed) the natural yeasts on the outside of the skin come into
contact with the natural sugars in the juice. A chemical reaction known as fermentation takes
place, this breaks down the natural sugars to form alcohol and carbon dioxide gas.
This chemical reaction (fermentation) can continue until (a) the strength of the alcohol reaches 16%,
(b) until all the sugars are used up, or (c) fermentation is stopped by lowering the temperature or
removing (Filtering) the yeasts out. At 16% the yeasts will normally die.
The alcohol composition for wine:
0
0.05%
alcohol free (forbidden, goes against the definition of wine).
0.05% - .5%
de-alcoholized
.5%
- 1.2%
low alcohol
1.2% - 5.5%
reduced alcohol
When do you obtain wine? : when between 8-15% ABV is reached this is still wine
confirmed. Some countries allow alcohol contents to go higher (i.e. Greece, Southern
Italy: 16.5%ABV).
Vines must be at least 3 years to make wine from them in the E.U.
Wine can be described using its combined characteristics. Using the above major classifications, we
can consider the elements of colour, sugar, alcohol, carbon dioxide and flavour contents individually in
wine;
colour: wines generally come in three colours: white, rose (pink, blush) and red.
sugar content: Wines vary in the amount of sugar remaining in the wine after the fermentation stops.
alcohol content: Table wines are lower than 15% abv. Fortified are still wines which have had their alcohol, increased
usually by adding grape brandy or neutral spirit which ranges between 16 to 21% abv.
carbon dioxide content: still or sparkling wines. Still wines go through the formal fermentation process and they are not
sparkling or effervescent. Sparkling wines go through two separate fermentations. Since the secondary fermentation
takes place within an enclosed container, the carbon dioxide gas dissolves in the wine creating an effervescent or bubbly
wine.
flavour addition: wines may also have flavours incorporated into them through the addition of extracts of aromatic
herbs and spices or by macerating these in the wines. These wines are also usually fortified to increase the alcoholic
content and thus are described as fortified and aromatised wines.
Water: 85 to 93% vol of biologically pure water that is drawn directly from the earth by the vines.
Ethanol (Alcohol): 7 to 15% vol of ethanol (alcohol), produced by fermenting the grape-sugar.
Sugar (Glucose/Fructose): varying amounts of residual sugars depending on the style of wine (0100
grams/ L)
Organic (Fruit) acids: varying amounts of fruit acids like acid 0.1 to 0.5 g/L, tartaric acid 1.0 to 3.0 g/L,
malic acid 0.0 to 4.0 g/L, lactic acid 1.0 to 3.0 g/L, succinic acid 0.5 to 1.5 g/L, acetic acid 0.2 to 0.8 g/L
Glycerol: 4 to 15 grams/L
Aroma components: 1 to 2 grams/L includes carbonyls, acetals, higher alcohols, esters and terpenes
Nitrogen compounds: 0.05 to 0.9 grams/L includes amino acids, biogenic amines
Phenolics: 0.2 to 1.3 grams/L red, 0.05 to 1.3 grams/L white includes anthocyanins and tannins
Additives: total sulphur dioxide (50 to 300 mg/L), sorbic acid (0 to 200 mg/L)
3.5
3.5
(continued)
Destemming and extraction of juice: stalks of grapes are removed (partially or totally depends on style of wine). If stalks
are required a crusher-stemmer is used to remove before crushing the grape. Extraction of juice (2 methods): Pressing (for white wines) just
enough pressure to draw the juice untainted by pigment from skins. Crushing: larger crusher which tears apart the berries and allows the pigment to
colour the juice.
Treatment of the must: extracted grape is called must, treated with sulphur dioxide to disinfectant and kill off wild yeasts and micro-organisms.
Sulphur dioxide stops wine oxidation (preservative) and micro-biotic activity (stops wine turning to vinegar). Skin contact: leaving the grape skins
with must to extract elements of flavour for fruitier wine styles for short period, clear juice is then sent for fermentation (white wines). Maceration:
skins are left to macerate with fermenting must, colour and tannin of skins drawn by presence of alcohol darkens the wine and add
more tannin. For Rose wines similiar process up to 48 Hours only.
Racking and removal of gross lees: after fermentation, solids or sediments (called gross lees) are removed (dead yeast, pips, pieces of grape
skin). Racking is a method used to clarify the wine by transferring wine from one vat or cask into another, leaving behind any solids.
Adding to yeast and alcoholic fermentation: Yeast is added to convert the natural sugars in must into alcohol and Co2. Yeast will stop working
at 15% abv, any sugar remaining is termed residual sugar, the higher the residual sugar the sweeter the wine. Malo-lactic fermentation (bacterial
conversion): Lactic acid bacteria present in wine become active as alcoholic fermentation slows down. This converst the harsh tasting malic acids
(tart acidity like green apples) into lactic acids (richer softer milk like). Malo-lactic fermentation is an optional activity for white wine production, most
red wines grown in warm climtes use malo-lactic fermentation.
Fining and cold stabilisation: Fining (process which involves a colloidal matter to coagulate anu solid matter within the wine to ensure clarity
(types: small amount if wine mixed with egg whites, Islingclass, Kieselgur and Bentonite types of powdered clay). Cold stabilisation: removing the
substance by filtration responsible for the white crystals found on insides of corks or at the bottom of a very chilled bottle.
Blending: Cellar master or wine maker assesses the wines and decides on a blend (cuvee), to create a desirable wine, eliminate possible
variations in fruit quality within a vintage or several vintages.
Final filtration: to clear unwanted particles ands sediment, done by centrifuges and super fine filters. Some wine makers prefer unfiltered.
Bottling: Wine is bottled and a cork is rammed in to form a seal, capsules protect the cork from pests and moulds.
Luck of the year: The weather (un-controllable factor), hailstorms can rip young shoots reducing yields, strong winds during flowering season can
spoil pollenation for fertilisation and the grapes may for form, rainfall (blessing or curse) during summer light rainfall is desired, heavy rains during
autumn near harvest can dilute the concentration of flavours.
3.6
Labelling
Labelling: Gives a guarantee and quality level therefore items which must appear on the label are (name of the wine, country of origin, region,
alcohol level, bottle contents, classification (AC or Vin de Pay), name of Producer or CO OP. Items which may appear on the label are (vintage or year:
wines from other years cannot be introduced, description of the wine, grape variety: if so 85% of this variety must be used, 75% in Australia, e = bottled
in accordance with European standards. Health warnings are not allowed in the E.U, only in U.S. Alcohol level for all zones is strictly controlled by EU
rules. Vintage: used to describe the year in which grapes of wine were grown and harvested, does not guarantee a quality wine. Varietal vs generic:
varietal is a wine made from a specific grape, Generic is a wine made from mixed grapes.
Appellations: the evolution of quality in wine making. (Chapter 3 - pp. 63-66)
1935: (AOC) Institut National des Appellations dorigine (first mapped appellations)
1940: Louis Larmat Appellation remapped
1960: Italy
1970: Spain
1971: Germany
1980s: Portugal, Greece, Bulgaria, Argentina, New Zealand
1993: Australia.
2 lower quality levels are: Vin de Pays (1979) and Vin de Table
AOC (1935): started with restricted use of the name Roquefort to cheese made and matured in a certain area, by a certain method, from ewes milk.
AOC rules: in wine restrictions are: area, method, grape variety, varieties, maximum crop per hectare, minimum strength.
VDQS (1949): In 1949 it was felt that A.C was too restricted (i.e. Chablis) 1949 VDQS was introduced Vin Delimite Qualite Superior = great wine that
just missed the A.C cut (sometimes they get upgraded in the future). Covers the same items as AC, but higher yields allowed and more grape varieties
used. VDQS only granted after tasting. If not bottled after 6 months, has to be tasted again.
Vin de Pays (1979): introduced and started in Langerdoc, Vin de Pays saved the French wine business with better quality and access for all. To
upgrade the quality and reduce the quantity of wine being made, maximum yield dropped from 90 to 80, but good makers would only use 40-45 HA/HL.
Lots of grape varieties are being used and great experimentation named in various ways,
Vin de Table (table wines): Vin de Pays, Vin de Table. Controlling body INAO all grapes sourced from all over France, 100 hecto litres per Hectare
(maximum possible). If over the 100 HL/HA it must be checked and a proportion will be sent for distillation. The more one makes over this figure, the
less payment they will receive for it.
3.7
Tasting Wine
Knowledge of wine can only be acquired with practice which develops a vinous memory some people have a
more delicate and sensitive palate than others, but this alone, without training, is less useful than a normal but
well trained palate.
Tasting and talking about wine (we verbalise what we are thinking)
wines differ from one another in terms of colour, texture, strength, structure, body and length, as
well as smell and their complexity of flavours, a taster takes all these into account (Johnson, 2003)
most people are not attuned to what a wine offers, for example they are occupied with
conversation, drinking whiskey, gin or vinegar which overwhelms it, a cold or never tuned to
differences between mere and fine wine)
we smell tastes , rather than tasting them, the real organ of discrimination is the upper nasal cavity
the range of reference available differs between experience tasters and a beginner
taste apart from sweet, sour, salt and bitter every taste term is borrowed from other senses
3.7
Tasting Wine
(continued)
In tasting, three of the senses play a primary role: sight (to evaluate the appearance of the wine), smell (to evaluate
the flavours of the wine on the nose) and taste (to evaluate the sweetness, acidity and bitterness of the wine on the
palate). The sense of touch plays a secondary role when assessing the texture of a wine, especially sparkling wines.
It is important that the major senses should be given a free rein to operate to best effect; thus the environment in
which the tasting takes place should be as neutral as possible.
Taste Senses of the Tongue
3.7
Tasting Wine
(continued)
lighting should be as natural as possible (daylight is best; failing that fluorescent strip-lighting is the best alternative)
a white background against which the wine can be studied (white tasting bench / sheet of plain white paper).
the tasters should try to approach the tasting with clean palates free from (cigarettes, food, fizzy drinks), a piece of bread or plain water helps cleanse the
palate
colds or hay fever affect the ability to smell and taste well
location should not be influenced by outside odours or internal odours (tobacco, perfume, aftershave should be avoided) confuse the power of smell
no food smells coming from nearby kitchens
tasting glasses with residual smells (cardboard, detergent, cloth) these can invalidate a tasting. Smell the glass before you use it and look to see if it is starbright.
The Glass: (ISO International Standards Organisation glass why this glass? Because it incorporates the following).
The Tasting:
Pink Champagne: made by saignee method (removing the must after a very short period of skin contact).
Cremant: wines with a little less than full sparkling wine pressure, and hence a more creamy mousse.
Sparkling wines - methods of production:
The traditional method: used to produce Champagne, sparkling wines of Loire Valley, Cava from Penedes region if Spain, Limoux and
premium New world sparkling wines. First fermentation to produce wine with crisp & high acidity plus moderate alcohol. Blending
(assemblage) for consistency, the blender may have wines from different grape varieties different vineyards and even different years.
Champagne must be produced from base wines of the one year, over 100 different wines from just one vintage can be used. Secondary
fermentation: liqueur de triage (sugar, yeast nutrients and a clarifying agent) is added to wine to create the sparkle. Crown cork is added,
bottles are laid to rest horizontally, sediment is removed after time. Dosage (sweetness level) is checked and sediment removal losses are
compensated. (Further information Chapter 3 Table 3.1)
The transfer method: (used in New World), wine is filtered under pressure at -3c. Entire bottle contents are disgorged into a tank under
pressure, filtered in bulk and rebottled into a fresh bottle (this method tries to gain advantages of a second fermentation without the expense).
The Tank method (cuve close in France): invented by Eugene Charmont (French), used for inexpensive sparkling wines, secondary
fermentation in sealed tank, dry base wine, sugar, yeast nutrients and a clarifying agent is added, sediment is removed by filtration under
pressure. No tank method sparkling can be of AC status (French law).
The Carbonation method: used for cheap sparkling wine, the Co2 is cyclinder injected, bubbles are large and disappear quickly.
Cork: conic
cylinder shape about three times the neck size of the bottle. The end in contact with the wine consists of two or
three horizontal slices of whole cork, the balance is made up of composition cork.
3.9
To match food and wine, assess the power of the food by its similarity in terms of impact on the palate to the wines.
Chardonnay: seafood with butter sauce, chicken, pasta with cream sauce, veal, turkey, ham, cheese, gruyeres,
Riesling: mild cheese, clams, mussels, Asian dishes, sashimi, ham, pork, lobster newberg, Tandoori chicken,
Coquilles St Jacques.
Sauvignon Blanc: oysters grilled or poached salmon, seafood salad, Irish stew, ham, chevre, goat cheese and
strongly flavoured cheeses, asparagus quiche.
Gewrztraminer: spicy dishes, Thai food, curry, smoked salmon, pork and sauerkraut, Muenster,
spiced/peppered cheeses, onion tart.
Cabernet Sauvignon: duck, spicy beef, pate, rabbit, roasts, spicy poultry, cheddar, blue cheese, sausage,
kidneys.
Pinot Noir: braised chicken, cold duck, rabbit, charcuterie, partridge, roasted turkey, roasted beef, lamb, veal,
truffles, and gruyeres.
Merlot: braised chicken, cold duck, roasted turkey, roasted beef, lamb, veal, stew, liver, venison, meat
casseroles.
Shiraz: braised chicken, chilli, goose, meat stew, peppercorn steak, barbequed meat, spicy meats, garlic
casserole, and ratatouille.
Pairing specific wines and foods within the meal experience: (chapter 3 pp. 70-72).
Johnson (2004) argues that to buy wine and not look after it properly is equivalent to hanging a
masterpiece in a dark corner or not exercising a racehorse, storing wines badly can turn nectar into
sludge.
Rationale for wine storage : The majority of bars do not need to stock fine wines and they will therefore feel
that investing in the equipment and training to ensure that their wines are stored properly is a waste of time and
money. However even quite inexpensive wines can benefit from a year or so in your wine cellar.
Corks effect on wine storage : Oxygen has an adverse effect on wine, the wine starts to spoil and go
vinegary. This adverse affect is often referred to as the wine being corked, not that there are bits of cork
floating in the glass. Corking can also occur when bacteria grows on an improperly sterilised cork. The wine
will not be harmful to drink, but youll get a whiff of sulphur (rotten egg) when you pull the cork, hence the
reason why many wine producers are slowly moving to plastic corks and screw tops.
Best practice procedures for storing wine: Good wine storage and cellar organisation can be summarised
under the following headings in chapter 3 pp. 73-74.
Summary / Conclusion
References
Web resources
www.wset.co.uk
www.winetelevision.com
www.wineenthusiast.com
www.sommeliers-international.com
www.decanter.com
www.winepronounce.com
www.epiciurious.com
www.courtofmastersommeliers.org
www.acfws.org