Review of

Series
Compensatio
Douglas Bowman, P.E.
n
Research, Development,
and Special Studies
Date: May 20-21, 2014

Contents
1. Series Compensation
2. Series Compensation Types
3. Subsynchronous Interactions (SSI) - Terms
4. Fundamentals of SSI and Series Compensation
5. Forms of SSI
6. SSI and Series Compensation
7. Tools for Assessment of SSI in Series Compensated Networks
8. SSI Mitigation Measures
9. SSI Protection Measures
10.Protective Relay Considerations for Series Compensated
Networks
11.Protective Relay Solutions for Series Compensated Networks
12.Project Planning for Implementation
13.Design Studies
14.Concluding Remarks

Series Compensation
1. Increases power transfer
capability
2. Improves transient
performance
3. Improves reactive power
balance
4. Improves Voltage Stability
5. Improves power flow
balance on adjacent lines
6. Deferral of major transmission
investments
7. Preservation of existing rights of way

Benefits of Series

Series Compensation
Since transmission
lines are mostly
inductive, adding
series capacitance
decreases its total
reactance
Reducing XL
increases PR
Compensation
Level K is defined as the percent of XLoffset by
the series capacitor
Example: For XL = 1 ohm, 30% compensation produces XL - XC =
.7 ohm

Increases Power Transfer Capability

Series Compensation
If A1 > A2, the
generator will return to
stability
Series compensation
increases the system
stability limits by
reducing the system
reactance between
machines as this
directly increases the
synchronizing torque
that can be
interchanged between
Improves Transient Performance
them
Following Disturbances
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Series Compensation
Transmission Line
Reactive Power Losses :

Reactive Power Balance For A 300

Mile 500kV Line

Qlosses=I2Xline
Series Capacitor
Reactive Power Output:
Qoutput=I2Xcapacitor
As a transfer across the
line increases, Qoutput
partially offset Qlosses

Improves Reactive Power Balance and

Self-Regulation
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Series Compensation
Increasing
compensation levels K
provides greater Qoutput
capability

Effect of Increasing Compensation

Levels

Maximum power
transfer capability of
the line is increased
Generator reactive
power is made available
for voltage control

Improves Voltage Stability

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Series Compensation Types

Continuous current rating

according to the line
Overvoltage protection

Zinc Oxide Varistor (MOV)

Conducts when voltage
level across capacitor
reaches protection level
Fast Protective Device
(FPD)
For example, an air gap
conducts when energy
absorbed by MOV exceeds
rated values.

Bypass Breaker
Damping Reactor

Fixed Series Compensation

(FSC)

Series Compensation Types

Two Modules

FSC as previously described

Capacitor with thyristor controlled, air cooled reactor
to modulate line impedance

FACTS Device

Offers Dynamic Power Flow Control

Reactance can be modulated to effectively mitigate SSI

Blocked Mode removes reactor from circuit

By-Passed Mode removes capacitor from circuit

Controlled Mode varies total reactance

Thyristor Controlled Series

Compensation(TCSC)

Subsynchronous Interactions
(SSI)
Terms

Subsynchronous Interaction A general term describing the

condition where two or more parts of the power system
exchange energy at one or more frequencies below the
fundamental frequency (60 hz).

Subsynchronous Oscillation - An SSO is a condition where the

electric network exchanges significant energy with a turbine
generator at one or more of the natural frequencies of the
combined system below the synchronous frequency of the
system following a disturbance from equilibrium.

SSI can lead to SSOs that must be damped before outage or

damage to network equipment occurs

Subsynchronous Resonance (SSR) A type of SSI where the

electric power system, most often a series compensated
transmission line, exchanges energy with a turbogenerator at
one or more natural frequencies below the fundamental 60hz
frequency (three types of SSR)
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Fundamentals of SSI and Series

Compensation

A power systems natural electrical frequencies

are a function of its inductance and capacitance.
When new capacitance is added, new natural
electrical frequencies result and the system
natural frequency approaches the fundamental
frequency fo

A generators shaft
may also have
multiple natural
frequencies of
oscillation

Four natural
frequencies or
torsional modes
for the system

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Forms of SSI
*

Interaction with series compensation does not occur

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SSI and Series Compensation

SSR TI (Torsional Interaction)

When a small disturbance occurs, simultaneous

excitation of all natural frequencies (modes) of
oscillation occurs in both the electrical system
and the generator
If the electrical and mechanical natural
frequencies are close to one another, sustained
or growing rotor oscillations can occur resulting
in possible torsional fatigue damage to the
turbine generator shaft. This is classic SSR-TI.

SSR TA (Torsional Amplification)

When a large disturbance occurs, the

subsynchronous transient current frequency may
be close to the generator natural torsional
frequency
Can lead to prolonged generator shaft
oscillations with high amplitude causing
increased stress and accelerated loss of life.

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SSI and Series Compensation

IGE (Induction Generator Effect)

Purely electrical resonance effect

Combined generator and electric power system
results in a negative effective rotor resistance at
a natural frequency below 60 hz
If the negative rotor resistance is greater than
the apparent stator plus network resistance, self
excited, subsynchronous current and
electromagnetic torque can result

SSCI (Control Interaction) ERCOT 2009

Event

Event between wind generators and series

compensated transmission line
2 pu overvoltage damaged rotor side protection
circuits
Wind farm became radially connected through
series capacitor

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Mohave SSR-TI Incident

(1970)
Mohave generator: 1,580 MW coal-fired in NV.

Gradually growing vibration that eventually

fractured a shaft section.

First investigations incorrectly determined cause.

After 2nd failure in 1971 cause was
identified as
Subsynchronous Resonance.

An electrical resonance at 30.5 Hz excited a

mechanical resonance at 30.1 Hz.

Problem was solved by reducing compensation and

installing a torsional relay.

D. Baker, G. Boukarim, Subsynchronous Resonance Studies and Mitigation Methods for Series Capacitor Applications, IEEE
2005.
D. Walker, D. Hodges, Results of Subsynchronous Resonance Test At Mohave, IEEE 1975.

Tools for Assessment of SSI in

Series Compensated
Frequency Scan Screening
Networks

Calculates apparent impedance from

Eigenvalue Analysis

generator from 0 to 60 hz
Can identify potential IGE, SSR-TI, SSR-TA, and
SSCI problems
System model linearized, small pertubations
examined
Identifies torsional mode damping
characteristics
Used to study SSR-TI and SSCI problems

Damping Torque Analysis

EMT type software used for analysis

Examines electrical torque response to small
change in generator speed to determine
damping characteristic
Practical for evaluating SSR-TI

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SSI Mitigation Measures (SSI

Prevention)
Network Based Preventative
Measures to Reduce a Known Risk of
SSI

Operational Procedure

Alter the network configuration or

generation dispatch

Bypass the Capacitor or reduce its

compensation level
Passive Filter Damping for series resonance
network condition

Shunt or Series

Shunt and Series

FACTS Active Shunt Filter Damping

STATCOM or SVC
FACTS Active Series Filter Damping

Thyristor Controlled
Series Compensation (TCSC)

Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC)

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SSI Mitigation Measures (SSI

Prevention)
Generator Based Preventative
Measures to Reduce a Known Risk of
SSI

Passive Filter Damping

Active Filter Damping (FACTS devices such as
TCR or STATCOM)
Supplemental Excitation Control Damping
Wind Turbine Control Damping

Type 3 and 4 turbines use VSC as basis for

control

Newer controls since 2009 mitigate SSI

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SSI Protection Measures (SSI

Series Capacitor Bypass
Detected)

Relay

Newer relays developed for

SSCI since 2009
Generator
Relays
Signal
Comments
Input

Torsional
Motion
(Stress) Relay

Shaft Speed

Developed and applied in the late 1970s. Speed is processed by

band-pass filters to calculate conditions at particular subsynchronous frequencies of interest. Torsional Stress Relays (TSR)
have been applied at several generator units and are still available.
Newer torsional motion relays are micro-processor based. Appears
to be the most widely applied measure to protect genertors from the
potential of SSI due to proximity of HVDC or series compensated
lines.

S. California
Edison patent

Terminal
voltage

Micro-processor relay that uses exclusive time domain analysis on

wave parameters of successive half cycles. More research is
recommended as to the application of this 1986 patent,
performance information, and current status.

ABB Research
Ltd. patent

Generator
Terminal
voltage

Micro-processor based relay developed in the 2011 timeframe.

ERLPhase
Power
Technologies

Generator
Terminal
voltage and
currents

Micro-processor based relay is used to perform frequency spectrum

analysis on the inputs to compare sub-synchronous frequency
components with fundamental component.

Summary of Generator Based

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Protective Relay Considerations

for Series Compensated
Voltage and current inversion due to
Networks

nearby fault
Measured Impedance of Distance
Protection when series
compensation switched in and out
Subsynchronous Transient Signal
Impacts on apparent impedance
Adjacent Line Impacts
Unbalanced Line and Mutual
Impedance Impacts
Automatic Reclosing for Series
Compensated Transmission Lines

Series Capacitor Switching

Three Phase Automatic Reclosing

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Protective Relay Solutions for

Series Compensated Networks

Advanced Relays for Series

Compensation Application

Protection Schemes

Memory Polarization
Special Series Compensation Logic
Sequence Component Impedance for
Directional Discrimination
Line Current Differential Protection
Directional Comparison Protection

Permissive Overreach Scheme

Underreaching Direct Trip and Direct

Transfer Trip Scheme

Protection Design and Performance

Verification

EMT simulation of various system conditions

recommended for the chosen protection

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Project Planning and

Implementation
Location of Series Compensation affects
effectiveness, voltage profile, protections
settings, future configuration, operation
and maintenance
Mid-Line Installation

Line Ends Installation

Modularity of Series Compensation for

staged development
Design for Future Network Modifications
Operations and Maintenance Considerations

FSC - majority of equipment used is already likely

found in the system
TCSC redundant power electronic modules allows

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Design Studies

Steady State and Short Circuit

analysis
Transient Stability Analysis
Harmonics and Subsynchronous
Frequency Scans to identify possible
resonance issues
Short-Term Transient Voltage and
Switching Studies (EMTP type) to
determine

Maximum energy on varistors

Maximum transient voltage and current on
capacitors
TRV on circuit breakers
Required size of MOV and damping circuit
components

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Concluding Remarks

Series Compensation used worldwide

since 1950s
Series Compensation is a tried and true
technology that continues to grow in
popularity as an effective means of
resolving a number of network issues
The risk of SSI is relatively low; however,
the consequences of an SSI event can be
significant. The risk and consequences
must factor into series compensation
design including controls and
protection.
The SSI phenomenon is well understood
and effective mitigations measures are
available

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