Chemical engineering as separate discipline about

1910, it was realized that neither mechanical engineering

nor chemistry offered valid approach to chemical plant
design.
Unit operations physical operations necessary for
manufacturing chemicals. (Heat transfer, Filtration,
distillation, fluid flow etc.,)
1930 P.H. Groggins suggested Unit process to refer
Chemical operations (Nitration, Sulfonation, Oxidation,
Chlorination, etc.)
Chemical Conversion chemical reactions applied to
industrial processing.

 Discussion will consider costs of reaction materials, energy

used in the process, effect of efficiency. (efficiency and
profitability)
Principal chemical conversion

Acylation
* Dehydration
* Hydrolysis/Hydration
Alcoholysis
* Dehydrogenation
* Ion exchange
Alkylation
* Diazotization and coupling
* Isomerization
Amination by reduction* Double decomposition
* Neutralization
Ammonolysis
* Electrolysis
* Oxidation
Esterification
* Nitration
*
Polymerization
Calcination
* Fermentation
* Hydrogenation
Carboxylation
* Fischer-Tropsch reaction
* Reduction
Causticization
* Friedel-crafts reaction * Halogenation
Combustion
* Pyrolysis or cracking
* Silicate
Formation
Hydroformylation (oxo)
* Aromatization or cyclization
Sulfonation and sulfation

 Each chemical conversion is one of a family of numerous

individual reactions.
Factory segregation
Close relationship among equipments used for making
different products.
Small or variable production : equipment can be used to
manufacture another product based on the same chemical
conversion.
Chemical conversion classification enables a chemical
manufacturer to move from group performances to that of new
individual chemical related class
Chemical Reaction (main basis)
Chemical conversion arrangements (rather considering unique
reactions)

 Chemical Engineer apply chemistry of a particular process

through the use of coordinated scientific and engineering
principles.
Yield is the fraction of raw material recovered as the main
product.
Conversion is the fraction changed to something else
(products and by products)
Conversion = Yield
Batch or Continuous Processes
Pilot plants are small scale units designed to allow
experiments that obtain design data for larger plants and
sometimes to produce significant quantities of new product to
permit user evaluation of it.

 Corrosion and Materials of Construction

Erosion is ___ , it can be reduced by avoiding sudden changes in flow
direction.
Corrosion cannot be prevented it can only be minimized.
Rubber covered steel, resin bonded carbon, tantalum
hydrochloric acid
Stainless steel aqueous nitric acid and organic acids
Nickel or nickel clad steel caustic solution (hot/cold)

Chemical Process Control and Instrumentation

Chemical Process Economics
Competing Processes, Material Balances, Energy, Labor, Overall
Cost

Market Evaluation
Purity and Uniformity of Product, Packaging, Sales and Customer
service,

Plant Locations

 Safety: Hazard such as fire or toxic materials

Carcinogens substance causing cancer
Teratogens substance causing fetal malformation

Construction of Plant
Management for Productivity and Creativity
Training for plant procedures
Labor

Research and Development

Patents - is a grant of exclusive right to the inventor to
his invention for a limited period of time.
Invention is the act of finding something new

Water conditioning and environmental protection * Nuclear Industries

Energy, fuels, air conditioning and refrigeration * Glass Industries
Photographic products industries
* Coal chemicals
Explosives, propellants, and toxic chemical agents
* Fuel gases
Surface coating industries
* Industrial gases
Food and food by-product industries
* Industrial carbon
Fragrances, flavors, and food additives
* Ceramic industries
Portland cement, calcium and magnesium compounds * Agrichemical
Industries
Salt and miscellaneous sodium compounds
* Soap and
detergents
Chlor-alkali industries: soda ash, caustic soda, chlorine * Fermentation
Industries
Man made fiber and film industries
* Nitrogen
Industries
Sulfur and sulfuric acid
* Pharmaceutical
Industries
Hydrochloric acid and miscellaneous inorganic chemicals * Oil, Fats and
waxes
Sugar and starch industries
* Rubber Industries
*

Industrial water
Surface water
Groundwater (often use for cooling) harder may cause scaling.
Hard waters contain objectionable amounts of dissolve salts of
calcium and magnesium. Calcium, magnesium silicate, silica.
Hardness is expressed in terms of the dissolved calcium and
magnesium salts calculated as calcium carbonate equivalent.
Carbonate (temporary hardness) can be greatly reduced by
heating. It is caused by bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium
Non carbonate (permanent hardness) requires chemical agents. It
is caused by sulfates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium.
Total dissolve solids
Suspended insoluble matter (turbidity), organic matter, color,
dissolved gases (free carbon dioxide, oxygen, nitrogen, in sulfur
water (hydrogen sulfide)

 Water conditioning
Trivia: Thomas Clark (England, 1841) patented the lime process for the
removal of carbonate or temporary hardness.
Porter developed the use of soda ash to remove non-carbonate or
permanent hardness
Robert Gans (Gemany, 1906) applied zeolites to commercially use for water
softening purposes.

Softening is the term applied to processes which remove or reduce

the hardness of water.
Purification as distinguished from softening, refers to the removal
of organic matter and microorganisms from water.
Clarification may be combined with cold water softening by
precipitation.
Ion Exchange (1852, Way) removal of ammonia from aqueous liquid
passing through a certain soil (calcium containing silicate)
Trivia : Adams and Holmes (first to publish about anion-exchange resin)

 Ion exchange a chemical reaction in which mobile hydrated

ions of a solid are exchanged, equivalent for equivalent, for
ions of the same charge in solution.
Zeolites (aluminum silicates
Organic : sulfonated natural products (coal, lignite or peat)
Polymer SDVB poly-styrene-divinylbenzene
Sodium-cation-exchange process softening water (NaCl)
Hydrogen-cation-exchange process Sulfuric acid (regen)
Anion Exchangers (highly basic and weakly basic)
HB and WB remove sulfuric, hydrochloric, nitric ; HB silicic and
carbonic

HB caustic soda (regen); WB caustic soda, soda ash,

ammonium hydroxide

 Lime soda processes uses slaked lime or soda ash

(calcium carbonate and magnesium hydroxide) Hot or
cold process.
Note 1 mole of lime for 1 calcium bicarbonate while 2 mole of lime
for magnesium bicarbonate.

Cold lime partial softening , reduce calcium hardness to

35 ppm, (aluminum sulfate or ferric sulfate act as
coagulant) replace by organic polyelectrolytes (iron and
aluminum carryover)
Accelerator in the equipment developed by Infilco Inc.,,
method of reducing supersaturation in the cold lime
process is contacting the previously precipitated sludge.
When this material is exposed to the raw water and
chemicals, the like surfaces, or seeds, accelerate the
precipitation.

 Permutit Spaulding Precipitator consists of two

compartments, one for mixing and agitating and the other
is for settling and filtering the softened water as it passes
upward through the suspended blanket of sludge.
Permutit Spiractor reduces the volume and water
content of the residual sludge. (wet sand)
Hot lime soda process conditioning boiler feedwater.
(operates at the boiling point of water) 20-25 ppm
Phosphate conditioning cobd bfw, Orthophosphate,
trisodium phosphate, sodium hexametaphosphate
(complex) to precipitate remains of calcium ion. SHMP is
advantageouos t0 alkaline, it can revert to acid
orthophosphate.

 Silica Removal partially removed by cold/hot lime process,

can be removed by using dolomitic lime or activated magnesia
in the softener. (blowdown)(demineralization)
Deaeration oxygen can be removed by electrode
polarization , organic inhibitors, protective salts (chromates,
silicates, phosphates and alkalies) forming film over anodic
or active sites.
Oxygen scavenging sodium sulfite or hydrazine hydrate (High
temp boiler)
Demineralization and desalting if silica removal in not impt
HCEU , WBAEU, degasifier, if needed HCEU, degasifier
(remove CO2), SBAEU + mixed bed
Distilled or deionized water are transported (SST, glass,
aluminum, tin(soft), PVC, PP, PE, Pcarbonates

 Desalination saline water (35000 ppm dissolve salt)

electrodialysis and reverse osmosis (20-30% cheaper
than thermal). Multi-stage flash evaporation, vertical tube
evaporation, vapor compression, vacuum-freeze vapor
compression.
Electrodialysis utilizes ion-exchange membranes in an
electric field. When a dielectric current is passed through
saline water in a series of closely spaced, alternately
placed, cation exchanger and anion exchanger
membranes, cation pass through the cation exchanger
membranes and anions through the anion exchanger
membranes, resulting in a salinity decrease in one space
and salinity increase in the next space.

 Reverse Osmosis utilizes the application of pressure

above the osmotic pressure to force pure water through
semi-permeable membrane from the concentrated brine
solution. Types : Bundles of very fine capillaries and
spiral wound sheets. (membrane material: cellulose
acetate brackish water or polyamides sea water)
Purification
Chloramine (feeding ammonia in chlorinated water), ozone,
chlorine dioxide.
Chlorine added to destroy pathogenic microorganisms
Activated carbon remove odors and improve flavor

 Seven criteria pollutants (air pollutants)

Ozone, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxides, oxides of
nitrogen, lead and particulates.

Particular sewage treatment is based on

Amount of suspended solids
BOD biochemical oxygen demand (amount of molecular oxygen
needed by a microbial population to stabilized biodegradable
organic material.

even criteria pollutants (air pollutants)

Ozone, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, sulfur dioxides, oxides of
nitrogen, lead and particulates.

 Nitrator a well agitated reactor with good cooling coils,

used for nitration with mixed sulfuric-nitric acid mixtures.

1. Pyrite FeS2
2. Sphalerite ZnS
3. Chalcopyrite CuFeS2
4. H2S (petroleum and natural gas)

Application : Sulfuric acid manufacture 90%

Wood pulp, carbon disulfide, insecticides, fungicides,
bleaching agents, vulcanizing rubber, detergents,
pharmaceuticals.

 Frasch Process
(Herman
Frasch late
1890s)
melting the
sulfur
underground or
under the sea
and then
pumping it up
to the surface.
Melting temp
Sulfur = 115oC
Hot water =
160oC

 Sulfur from fuel gas

H2S removed from natural gas, coke oven gas,
petroleum refinery gas by dissolving in potassium
carbonate solution or ethanolamine.
H2S is burned to give sulfur dioxide elemental sulfur
(Claus Process)

 Sulfur from other sources (Sulfide ores, smelting ores,

burning spent acid or acid sludge from petroleum
refining)
Copper Smelters
Sulfur from pyrite ores (Outokumpu flash smelter
process, Orkla process and the Noranda process)

 Ancient preparation (burning sulfur with salt peter

(potassium nitrate)) Valentinus 15th century
1746 Roebuck (Birmingham, England) introduces the
lead chamber process (obsolete) (78%)

 2 NO2 + H2O HNO2 + HNO3SO2 (aq) + HNO3

NOHSO4NOHSO4 + HNO2 H2SO4 + NO2 + NOSO2 (aq) + 2
HNO2 H2SO4 + 2 NO
2 NO + O2 2 NO2
Nitrogen oxides catalysts for the overall reaction:
2 SO2 + 2 H2O + O2 2 H2SO4

 1831 Phillips discovered contact process 98.5 to 99%

sulfuric acid

 Oleum (fuming sulfuric acid) percentage of SO3

present in H2SO4.
20% Oleum (for 100 kg ; 20 kg SO3 and 80 kg H2SO4)
% acid = 100 + 18/80 * % oleum
Sulfuric acid in water are sold based on their specific
gravity or Baume degrees.
93% sulfuric acid for fertilizer manufacture (major use
of H2SO4)
Commercial oleums ( 10-35 % oleum, 40% oleum, 6065% oleum)

 1900-1925 Platinum as catalysts

Mid 1920s Vanadium was used to replace platinum.
Catalysts : 7% V2O5 (commercial catalysts(sulfates,
pyrosulfates))
Plugging due to acid mist can be a problem.
Cylindrical shape hallow cylindrical shape to increase
surface area
Iron oxide and platinum replaced by vanadium
Water cannot be used because direct contact of sulfur
trioxide and water results in an acid mist that is
impossible to absorb.

 Cellulose is the most abundant organic substance

available.
2500-2000 BC made from tall reed called papyrus.
Papyrus is a thick paper like material produced from
the pith of the papyrus plant.
Cotton and linen rags major sources of fiber for paper
and now replaced by wood pulp.
Pulping process aims to release the fibrous cellulose
from its surrounding lignin while keeping the
hemicellulose and cellulose intact.
Major process are : sulfate or Kraft Process,
Groundwood and thermomechanical process,
semichemical process, sulfite process

 Alkaline process
Outgrowth of the obsolete soda process (12% solution
NaOH and Na2CO3)
Na2SO4 is added to cooking liquor (Sulfate process)
Na2S, NaOH and Na2CO3
Most cases used coniferous woods
Digester volatilizing turpentine and noncondesable
gases
Chlorine or hypochlorite is used in bleaching to destroy
the dyes and tannins of the woods.

 Soda pulping similar procedure to kraft the difference

is the solvent, NaOH/Na2CO3
Sulfite Pulping water pollution is the main concern
Spruce, balsam, hemlock are used
Digestion of the wood in aqueous solution containing
calcium bisulfite and excess sulfur dioxide
Semichemical or NSSC Pulping Neutral sulfite semichemical pulping uses substantially less chemicals in
pulping than the full chemical processes. Sodium sulfite
buffered with sodium carbonate cooking medium)
Used in linerboard or corrugating paper

 Mechanical and thermomechanical pulping - involves

no chemical.
At elevated temperature the lignin are softened making
mechanical pulping less difficult.
(Spruce and Balsam) Wood is steamed at 975 kPa and
refining is carried out at 170oC (fiberboard)
New pulping process solvent pulping (ethanol,
phenol, delignifying solvent)
Secondary fiber pulping deinked with (NaOH, sodium
carbonate and Na2O(SiO)
Rag Pulping cotton, (finest grade), clippings from
textile and clothing manufacturing plants

 Wet process
(surface, opacity, strength
and feel)
Two general process
(beating and refining)
Beater (Hollander)
Refiner (mills, conical
refiner or jordan engine)

 Alum added to coat the

fibers and coagulate the
materials present.
Fillers are added to give
smoother surface, more
brilliant whiteness, improved
opacity, printability and
smoothness (not applicable to
tissue, filter and towels).
Fillers (finely ground inorganic
substance) talc, clay,
titanium oxide, silicoaluminates or calcium
carbonates
Sizing is added to paper to
improve resistance to
penetration by liquids. (Rosin
soap made of tall oil, wax
emulsion)

 Fourdrinier machine
Cylinder machine - used for manufacture of heavy paper,
cardboard, nonuniform paper.

 Carbon Dioxide
Thiolier produced solid carbon dioxide (used for
refrigeration
Liquid carbon dioxide carbonated beverages (fire
extinguisher)
Gaseous carbon dioxide production of salicylic acid
Manufacturing
Recovery from synthesis gas in ammonia production
Recovery as a by-product in the production of SNG (substitute
natural gas)
Recovery from the production of ethanol by fermentation
Recovery form natural gas

 Carbon dioxide
Girbotol process (absorbing solution made of hot,
concentrated potassium carbonate and
monoethanolamine)
Hydrogen
Derived from carbonaceous materials (hydrocarbons) or
water
Electrical, chemical or thermal
Electrolysis of water, steam reforming of hydrocarbons,
thermal dissociation of natural gas
Electrolytic method theoretical decomposition voltage is
1.23 V at room temp
15% NaOH, iron cathode and nickel-plated-iron anode

 Hydrogen
Steam hydro carbon reforming process catalytically
reacting a mixture of steam and hydrocarbons at an
elevated temperature to form mixture of H2 and oxides of
carbon
Catalysts
Nickel steam-hydrocarbon reforming, methanation, mamonia
cracking or dissociation
Iron oxide for CO conversion

Hydrogen Purification
Carbon monoxide removal conversion to hydrogen via
water gas shift reaction, or scrubbing of complex copper
ammonium salts
Carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide removal MEA, hot
potassium carbonate, physical solvent process,
adsorptive purification and cryogenic liquid purification

 MEA Monoethanolamine (Girbotol process) CO2 removal

Hot potassium carbonate catalytic promoter
(Giammarco-Vetrocoke and Catacarb processes)
Physical solvent process Rectisol process using cold
methanol, fluor solvent process using propylene
carbonate, sulfinol process using sulfolan, selexol
process using dimethyl ether and polyethylene glycol,
purisol process using N-methyl-2-pyrrolidine
Adsorptive purification (CO2, water, methane, ethane,
CO, Ar and N2) : thermal swing process low - high,
pressure swing adsorption process (PSA) high-low
Cryogenic liquid purification cooling to the appropriate
cryogenic temp, where the impurities will condensed and
can then be separated as liquid stream

 Oxygen and Nitrogen liquefaction and rectification

Oxygen - Production of steel (basic use)
Nitrogen - Tank blanketing

 Air is liquefied by the Linde process, in which air is

alternately compressed, cooled, and expanded, the
expansion resulting each time in a considerable reduction
in temperature. With the lower temperature the molecules
move more slowly and occupy less space, so the air
changes phase to become liquid.
Air can also be liquefied by Claude's process in which
the gas is allowed to expand adiabatically twice in two
chambers so that the liquefaction occurs quickly. This
liquefaction takes place by the Joule Thompson effect.

 Soda ash Solvay process (LeBlanc process was used)

99.3% Na2CO3
LeBlanc based on roasting salt cake with carbon and
limestone in rotary furnace and subsequently leaching
the product with water. (crude product black ash)
Ernest Solvay 1861, ammonia-soda process
Sodium hydroxide is made by causticization of LeBlanc
soda ash
Sold based on Na2O content 76% Na2O = 98%NaOH

 Solvay process
Uses salt, limestone, and coke or natural gas as raw materials and
ammonia as cyclic reagent
Ammonia, water and carbon dioxide ammonium bicarbonate
reacts with NaCl sodium bicarbonate (roasted) soda ash
Ammonium is recovered from ammonium chloride reacts with lime to
form calcium chloride and ammonia.
Chlorine and caustic soda produce by electrolysis of aqueous
solution of alkali metal chloride.
Diaphragm cells made of asbestos fibers (separates anode
graphite and cathode cast iron)
Membrane cells made of semipermeable membrane
Mercury cells anode made of graphite and cathode is flowing pool
of mercury

 Joseph Aspdin, 1824 patented artificial cement made by the

calcination of an argillaceous limestone, he named it Portland
(resembles the famous building stone obtained from Isle of
Portland near England).
Portland cement the product obtained by pulverizing clinker
consisting essentially of hydraulic calcium silicates, usually
containing one or more forms of calcium sulfates as an
interground addition.
Materials needed for manufacture cement
One rich in calcium (calcareous) ex limestone, chalk etc
One rich in silica (argillaceous) ex clay

Clinker is lumps or nodules, usually 325 mm in diameter,

produced by sintering limestone and alumino-silicate (clay)
during the cement kiln stage.

 Lime is produced by calcination and hydration

Gypsum is hydrated calcium sulfate
At higher temperature, gypsum loses all its water and becomes
anhydrite or calcium sulfate

 An explosive is a material that, under the influence of thermal

or mechanical shock decomposes rapidly and spontaneously
with the evolution of a great deal of heat and much gas.
Three types of explosives
Mechanical
Atomic
Chemical (Detonating , high explosive, a. Primary or initiating
explosives b. booster and secondary explosives or Deflagrating, low
explosive - )

Initiating explosives materials that are quite shock and heat

sensitive. (mercury fulminate, lead azide etc)
Booster materials that are insensitive to both mechanical
shock and flame but that explode with great violence (PETN
pentaerythritoltetranitrate) cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine RDX

Industrial explosives
Nitroglycerine and dynamite
Nitroglycerine produced by nitration of glycerol.
Dynamite is made by absorbing nitroglycerine into kieselguhr,
a kind of clay. Modern dynamite uses wood flour, ammonium
nitrate or sodium nitrate to absorb nitroglycerine.
Propellants, rockets and missiles
Black powder oldest known propellant
Smokeless powder replace black powder due to superior
power and better storage characteristics.
Propellants LOX or LH2, liquid oxygen or liquid hydrogen,
high specific impulse and low cost
Solid propellants heterogeneous or composite porpellants
(oxidizer and reducer present in two distinct phase) and
homogeneous or double based (oxidizer and reducer present
in a dingle or colloidal phase)

 Oils and fats mixture of glycerides and various fatty acids

Cottonseed oil, soybean oil, linseed oil (flaxseed), coconut oil,
corn oil, palm oil, peanut oil 9hydraulic press or anderson
expeller), tung oil (tung tree), castor oil, safflower oil (linoleic
acid)
Processing of oil
Degumming or steam refining, adsorptive bleaching, hydrogenation,
and deodorization

Degumming (phosphoric acid) centrifugation

Bleaching bentonite clays (if will be used for salad oils
winterizing treatment) 5oC
Hydrogenation or hardening (applied to fats and oils) odor,
taste
Nickel is used as catalysts

Deodorization blowing superheated steam

Hexane is used as solvent

 Animal oils and fats

Neats foot oil skin, bones and feet od cattle oiling
watches, fine machineries, leather, and textile industries
Whale oil lard substitutes, soapmaking,
Cod-liver oil medical purposes, rich in vitamins A and
D, it has high levels of the omega-3 fatty acids,
eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic
acid (DHA).
Shark liver oil with higher Vitamins A and D compared
to Cod-liver
Fish oils paints, lubricants, leather, soap making

 Wax mixture of polyhydric alcohols (except glycerol)

and fatty acids.
Beeswax (honeycomb) candles
Carnauba wax (carnauba palm) floor, automobile,
furniture polishes, carbon paper, candles and molded
product
Spermaceti - (sperm whale) ointments, low surface
tension lubricant.

 Soaps form insoluble compounds with the calcium and

magnesium ions present in hard water, the insoluble
compounds precipitate out and reduce foaming and
cleaning action.
Detergents react with the hard water ions, but the
resulting products are either soluble or remain colloidally
dispersed in the water.
Detergent four groups: anionic, cationic, nonionic,
amphoteric
Soil removal is accomplished by wetting, emulsifying,
dispersing, or solubilizing the soil by the cleaning agent.

 Raw materials
Surfactants any compounds that affects surface tension
when dissolve in water or water solution.
1. wetting the dirt
2. removing the dirt
3. maintaining the dirt in stable solution or suspension
Biodegradability the ease with w/c a surfactant is
decomposed by microbial action.
Straight chain alkyl benzenes biodegradable detergents
Fatty acids and fatty alcohols
Builders boost detergent power. Complex phosphates
(sodium tripolyphophates) prevent redeposition of soil
on fabrics
Additives corrosion inhibitor, sodium silicate

 Tallow the principal fatty material in soap making.

Comprises of sodium or potassium salts of various fatty
acids.

 Perfume
CONSTITUENTS
Vehicles (Solvent) ethyl alcohol
Fixatives substance of lower volatility than the perfume oils,
which retard and even up the rate of evaporation of the various
odorous constituents
Odoriferous element essential oil, isolates, synthetic or
semisynthetic chemicals
Essential oil volatile, odoriferous oils of vegetable origin. Usually
obtained by steam distillation.
Isolates- pure chemical compound whose source is an essential
oil or other natural perfume material
Synthetic or semisynthetic produce by chemical synthetic
procudure

 Liquid paint is a dispersion of a finely divided pigment in a

liquid composed of resin or binder and a volatile solvent. The
liquid portion is known as the vehicle.
Paint constituents
1. Vehicles
Nonvolatile
Solvent based : oils and/or resin plus driers and additives
Lacquers : cellulosics, resins, plasticizers, additives
Water based : styrene-butadiene, Polyvinyl acetate, acrylic,
polymer, emulsions, copolymer plus additive
Volatile
Ketones, esters, acetates, aromatics, aliphatics

2. Pigment (opaque, transparent, special purpose type)

 Pigment usually inorganic / if organic dye (toner)

Pigment extenders (fillers) reduce cost of the paint and
increase durability
Pigment and fillers aesthetic and protective by
reflecting destructive light rays
Oils as part of vehicle, but also helps to form protective
film and to plasticize it.
Many paints contains both natural and synthetic drying
oils.
Pigments
White pigments ( Lithopone (zinc sulfide and barium
sulfate), titanium dioxide, barium sulfate)
Black pigments (carbon blacks)
Blue Pigments (Ultramarine blue (sodium aluminum
silicate and sulfide), Phthalocyanine blues, ferrocyanide
blues)
Red pigments red lead (Pb3O4), ferric oxide, basic lead
chromate

 Green pigments (phthalocyanine green, chromium oxide

green, guignets green (hydrated chromium oxide),
Chrome green
Brown pigment burnt sienna (heat iron containing clays)
burnt ocher, burnt umber
Varnishes is an unpigmented colloidal dispersion or
solution of synthetic and/or natural resins in oils and/or
thinners used as protective and/or decorative coating for
various surfaces and which dries by evaporation,
oxidation, and polymerization of potions of its
constituents