Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Kaedah Penyelidikan I
Jenis-jenis.
True Experimental
Quasi-Experimental
Ex Post Facto (Causal-Comparative)
Research
Ciri-ciri Kajian
Eksperimental Benar
Lakaran Kajian
Untuk ilustrasi rekabentuk kajian, beberapa
simbol digunakan:
X1 = Rawatan
X2 = Kumpulan kawalan
O = Pemerhatian/Cerapan (pra- atau pos-ujian)
R = Pemilihan/Agihan rawak
R O X1 O
This is not really an experimental design
because there is no control group
It is often referred to as a preexperimental design
R O X1 O
What are the threats to the Internal
Validity of this type of research (Did
the treatment really cause a
difference?)
R O X1 O
Internal Validity Threats
History
Another event occurs during the time of the
experiment that might cause the difference
An experiment to heighten racial awareness was
conducted by a researcher during February. This is
Black History month; so the results might be affected
by events that occur during Black History month and
not the treatment.
R O X1 O
Internal Validity Threats
Maturation
People naturally change and evolve over time.
This may cause the difference.
A college develops a new housing plan to promote
more open-mindness and acceptance of others. The
students are tested when they enter college and when
they graduate. The results show they are now more
open-minded and tolerant of others. Did the housing
plan work or do students just mature and grow as a
result of the college experience.
R O X1 O
Internal Validity Threats
Mortality
Some people drop out during an experiment. This
may affect the outcome.
I am teaching a new experimental seminar on study
skills. About half of the class stopped coming to the
seminar before the semester was over. The students
who remained improved their study skills. So my
course was effective!
Probably not. The half that stopped coming might not
have gained anything; that is why they stopped
attending.
R O X1 O
Internal Validity Threats
Testing
Whenever you give a pretest, the students may
remember the test questions, and get them correct
on the posttest.
I gave a test to my study skills group on Monday,
presented some unique concepts on Tuesday, then gave
them the posttest on Wednesday. The grades were
significantly higher on the posttest.
It is possible the grades were higher because the students
still remembered the questions from the pretest.
R O X1 O
Internal Validity Threats
Instrumentation
To overcome the testing threat to internal
validity, a researcher develops a different form of
the test instrument, but it is not really equivalent.
I gave a test to my study skills group on Monday,
presented some unique concepts on Tuesday, then gave
them an alternative form of the pretest on Wednesday.
The grades were significantly higher on the posttest.
It is possible the grades were higher because the second
test was easier than the first.
RO X1 O
Internal Validity Threats
Regression
When subjects are selected because of extreme
scores on some type of instrument, there is
tendency for their scores to move more toward
the average on subsequent tests.
An experimenter selected students for a reading
program based on their low test scores. At the end of
the treatment, the test scores had improved.
Extreme scores naturally move toward the mean on
subsequent tests.
R O X1 O
R O X2 O
R X1 O
R X2 O
R O X1 O
R
X1 O
R O
O
R
O
Note: A blank
indicates the
control group,
same as X2
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Posttest Only Nonequivalent Group
Design
The absence of R indicates
X1 O
X2 O
there is no random
assignment. Sometimes you
will see a dotted line
between the two groups.
This indicates the two
groups may not be
equivalent.
Quasi-Experimental Designs
Pretest-Posttest Nonequivalent Group
Design
O X1 O
O X2 O
External Validity
Can the research be generalized to
other settings?
Population Validity
Personological Variables
Ecological Validity
Population Validity
Is the sample population similar to the
population the researchers wishes to
generalize to
Personological Variables
Different people have different
personalities, learning styles, etc., so
the results may not be generalizable to
people who are substantially different
on these personological variables.
Ecological Validity
The setting or situation in which the
experiment occurred may be different
than other settings.
Statistical Analysis
If we are comparing the scores of two
groups a t-test is normally used. The
value of t means nothing by itself
(unlike the value of R). We have to
determine if t is statistically significant
Statistical Analysis
If we are comparing the scores of three
(or more) groups Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) is used. This test
gives us a f value which means nothing
by itself. We have to determine if it is
statistically significant.
Statistical Analysis
If we want to statistically equate two or more
groups (because one group had a high pretest
score) we use Analysis of Covariance
(ANCOVA). This test gives us a f value
which means nothing by itself. We have to
determine if it is statistically significant.
CONVERGENCE-DIVERGENCE
Positive change in the treatment
group without change in the control
group
Treatment
Control
Treatment
Divergence
Positive increments at a different rate
Treatment
Control
Convergence
The treatment group catches up with the
control group
Treatment
Control
Cross pattern
The treatment group overpass the control
group
Treatment
Control
No effect
Change in the rate or slope
TIME
Questions?