INTRODUCTION TO

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY
Geology = Earth Science

What is the meaning of geology ?

Geology is the study of Earth, includes,

Chemical and Physical
Properties, Earth Creation, Inner and Outer
Processes Affected it, Since Its Creation To
Present Day.

C
R
O
S
S

S
E
C
T
I
O
N

sial
5 - 60 km

Crust

5 - 60 km

Sima

Sima

870 C

Upper Mantle

Conrad Discontinuity
Conrad Discontinuity

Peridotite Rocks

Moho Discontinuity
Moho Discontinuity

Peridotite Rocks
Mantle

35 - 2900 km

Mantle

Gutenberg Discontinuity
2900 km

2900 - 6370 km

Lower Mantle

Pallasite
Rocks)()
(peridotite=Fe
Gutenberg Discontinuity

I
N

sail

Crust

0C

2 200 C
Upper Core
Upper Core
Fe = 90%
Ni = 10%

Core

Earth Crust Density= 2.85 gm/cm3

A
R
T
H

Mantle Density = 4.53 gm/cm3

Core

Lowe Core
Iron+Ni

Lower
Core

Core Density= 10.7gm /cm3

6370 km

6 000 C

Earth Crust sial and Sima Layer

Sial Layer:-It is the upper part of Earth crust .Its thickness between 2-15 km, Density about 2.8gm /cm3 .
Sail is consist of light colours Granitic Rocks ( Aluminium Silicate).
Sial Layer is thick at Land while it is thin or absent at Oceans.
Sima Layer:-It is the lower part of Earth Crust. Its thickness about 20-25 km, Density about 3.4gm /cm3 . Sima consist of Magnesium
Silicate. The upper part of this layer is Crystalline but the lower part is uncrystalline (classy texture).

Conrad Discontinuity:- Interference zone which is separated between Sial and Sima.

Sea Level

Conrad Discontinuity
Sial Layer

Moho discontinuity

Sima Layer
4

4
11

Earth bottom
The Seismology:-The Seismology is good method to know the consists of Earth Bottom.

Moho (Yugoslavian Scientist) is the first one who notice Difference in Earth Layers by using the
Primary and Secondary Waves.
The Waves behaviour are changed at depth about 35km, this means changes in properties of rocks
Called Moho Discontinuity.

Moho Discontinuity:-it is an imaginary limited zone separated between earth crust and mantle at depth
between 35-50 km
(depends on its position in different Continents).

Earth Mantle
The information about the mantle is get by geophysical methods, since the increasing of seismologic

waves speed is leading to collection of

Ferric-magnesium which is mean dark colour rocks. Mantle thickness is about 2650 km.

Scientists are identified two Layers:-

Upper Layer (Peridotite):-The Density is about 3.4 gm/cm consist of Basic or Ultra basic Igneous Rocks
3

with more Dark Colure.

Lower Layer (Pallasite):-It is consist of basic Minerals and Ferric Metals.

Earth Core
The Thickness of Core is about 3600 km. The Core consist of Ferric about 90%, Nickel about 10%.

Scientists collects information about the core of Earth by indirect methods by way of seismological
waves and Meteor, meteorites analysis which are fall on Land from time to time.
The analysis of Meteor and Meteorites shows Ferric, Nickel and some Chromium and Cobalt Metals

Some Specialists divided Core of earth into:-

1- Outer Core (fusion).

2- Inner Core (Solid).

UNIT I
MINERALOGY

Mineralogy
The study of the chemistry, atomic structure,
physical properties, and genesis of minerals.
MINERALS
A mineral is a naturally occuring homogeneous
substance which has a more or less definite
chemical composition and definite atomic
structure
The minerals are usually formed by inorganic
processes.

Mineral Groups
SL
no

Mineral Groups

Examples

Oxides

Quartz, magnetite, hematite, limonite etc

Silicates

Feldspar, Mica, hornblend, augite, olivines etc

Carbonates

Calcite, dolomite, siderite etc

Sulfides

Pyrite, galena etc

Sulfates

Gypsm etc

Chlorites

Rocksalt etc

General Properties of Minerals

Each mineral has characteristic physical
properties. These properties include Color,
Streak, lusture, cleavage, hardness, specific
gravity, tenacity, diaphenity, Magnetism.

Color
Color is often the first property noticed of a mineral. For some minerals it is a very
important property. Azurite, for example is always blue, and named for the color azure,
whereas galena is always silvery gray. For most minerals, however, color should not be used as a
significant diagnostic property. Quartz for example is usually colorless or white, but may range
from red (jasper) to purple (amethyst) to black (smoky), depending on impurities. Color may be
misleading or confusing to persons not well practiced in the science of mineralogy.
It should also be pointed out that color might vary depending on the light of the
environment. Sunlight contains the full spectrum of light. Incandescent or fluorescent lights
used indoors provide only part of the light spectrum, and therefore the perceived color of a

mineral may vary.

With respect to minerals, this property can be quite spectacular, especially with some
minerals when viewed under ultra-violet light. For example, a calcite that appears a milky white
in sun light, might be a bright fluorescent green under ultra-violet light.

Streak
Sometimes when a mineral is broken down into small
pieces, or ground into a powder, its color may become
enhanced. When we grind a mineral across a white
unglazed porcelain plate(and the mineral is softer than
the porcelain!) a powdered streak will be left on the
plate. The
color of this streak may be very helpful in properly
identifying the specimen (especially the
metallic or earthy minerals). For example: the mineral
hematite is often silvery in appearance,
but when a streak test is run, the powdered streak will be
reddish-brown. The common streak

Lusture
The way a mineral reflects light is called its
luster. The two basic types of luster are
metallic and non-metallic. Recognizing the
Metallic lusters usually resemble shiny brass
Non-metallic lusters can be quite variable.
or steel.
On occasion, though,
minerals with
With the exception
of the earthy minerals,
difference
between
metallic
and non-metallic
metallic luster will look more like a dull
most will leave no streak. The following
metal
(like an engine
block). Most
minerals
are used
further describe them.
lusters
is our
usual
firstterms
step
in tomineral
possessing metallic Lusters will also leave a
Glassy or Vitreous = looks like lass
pronounced
streak.
Earthy or Dull = looks like a broken brick
identification.
Resinous or Submetallic = like esin or shiny
cellophane
Waxy or Pearly = looks like wax or pearls

Cleavage
The forces that hold atoms together (bonding)
within a crystal are sometimes not the same in all

directions. For example, even though a diamond

is the hardest known substance on the Earth, it
can be broken more easily in some orientations
(directions) than in others. If definite planes of

Hardness
Hardness is a measure of a mineral's ability to
resist abrasion (scratching). A harder
substance will scratch a softer one. For
example, a knife will scratch calcite, quartz
likewise will scratch calcite; therefore quartz is
harder than calcite. In the 1800's, the German
mineralogist Friedrich Mohs (1773-1839)
created a comparative hardness scale. He took
the hardest mineral (diamond) and assigned it
the number 10, and ranked softer minerals

Mohs Scale of Hardness

10 Diamond
9 Corundum
8 Topaz
7 Quartz
6 Feldspar
5.5 Glass
5 Apatite
4 Fluorite
3 Calcite 3.0 Copper wire
2.5 Fingernail

Specific Gravity
Specific gravity (SG), commonly referred to as heft,
is the weight of a mineral compared to the
weight of an equal volume of water. If a mineral
weighs 3 times as much as an equal volume of
water, the mineral has a specific gravity of 3. In
the field you can estimate the specific gravity of a
mineral by hefting the specimen in your hand.
After a little practice with various minerals of
known specific gravity, such as galena (SG = 7.5),
pyrite (SG = 5) and calcite (SG = 2.7) its possible
to estimate the specific gravity of an unknown
mineral with reasonable accuracy. In the lab,
however, we determine SG as follows. First,
weigh the mineral in air (suspended from the

Tenacity
When placed under stress, a mineral may respond in a variety of
ways. This response, or
resistance to breakage, is called tenacity . Depending on the rate of stress,
the same mineral
may respond differently. Thus, sometimes more than one term can be used to
describe the
tenacity. Some different kinds of tenacity are:
(1) Elastic - can be bent and will snap back to its original shape like a rubber
band after
the deforming pressure is released.
(2) Flexible - can be bent but will not regain its original shape after releasing
the
deforming pressure, like putty. Selenite gypsum is a good example.
(3) Brittle - shatters into fragments, like glass. Quartz and pyrite are good
examples.
(4) Malleable - can be smashed (pounded) into thin sheets without
breaking, like a lead
fishing sinker. Gold and native copper are good examples. One ounce of gold
can

Diaphaneity
The way minerals transmit light is referred to
as diaphaneity. There are three
categories of diaphaneity:
(1) Transparent - you can clearly see an image
through these minerals, like looking
through glass. Some specimens of quartz may have
some transparent areas.
(2) Translucent - allows some light to transmit
through, but not an image. You can not
see anything clearly through these minerals, like
looking through a piece of frosted
glass. Calcite and fluorite are often translucent.

Magnetism
A few minerals behave as natural magnets;
they are able to deflect a compass and attract

other magnets. Magnetite is the most common

mineral with this unique property. The mineral
pyrrhotite (looks like pyrite but is far less

Metalic Minerals

Non Metallic Mineral; Hardness > 5

Non Metallic Mineral; Hardness < 5

Quartz

Plagioclase

Asbestos

Feldspar

Gypsum

Calcite