DESIGN OF OFFSHORE STRUCTURES

INTRODUCTION
Offshore structures are constructed to explore the oil resources and
for drilling purposes.
In the Gulf of Mexico, the first offshore structure was placed in 1945

in 6m water depth for drilling an exploration well.

The structure was made of timber and supported a converted land rig
which drilled a dry hole.

In 1947 the first production well was drilled from a steel structure in
10m water depth.

 In 1960 the first structure was installed in over 50m water

depth and in 1967 the 100m barrier was broken in the Gulf of
Mexico.
In 1976 first structure of 200m was installed in offshore

California and 300m structure was installed in 1978, in Gulf of

Mexico.
Various basic technologies involved in any offshore structural
design is shown in Fig. 1

TECHNOLOGY
Oceano graphy

Foundation
Engineering

Wind
Wave
Current
forces
forces
Tide
Ice

Soil Characteristic
Vertical pile soil
characteristics
Lateral pile Soil
characteristics

Structural
Engineering

Materials
selection and
corrosion
Stress analysis

Marine Civil
engineering

Installation
equipment

Naval
Architeure

Flotation &
Buoyancy
Towing

Installation
methods

Launching

Welding
Structural analysis

Scour

Navigation
safety
instrumentation

Controlled
flooding

Design for
fabrication and
installation
Appurtenances

Fig.1 Technologies involved in offshore platform design

CLASSIFICATION OF OFFSHORE PLATFORMS

Classification of the offshore platform can be done based on

functional aspects, geometric form, construction and
installation methods etc.

The platforms can be classified into two main categories,

namely

1.

bottom-supported units
(jacket type,gravity platformsetc.,)

2. floating units.
(Drill ships and semi-submersibles)

a) Jacket Platforms

These are open steel trusses of tubular section pinned to

the seabed with piles.

The piles are driven from above the water surface.

Jacket platforms are also called template structures.

It is used for offshore drilling and production operation.

All the platforms in Bombay High are of this type.

(b) Gravity Platform

Rests directly on the ocean floor.
In the CONDEEP platform construction, a heavy concrete
mat is laid on the seafloor.
The mat is provided with concrete skirt, with steel skirts
attached to them.
These skirts which in the form of short cylindrical shells
provide resistance against horizontal sliding.
Useful for scour protection and to facilitate grouting the
foundation.
Over the concrete mat, cylindrical domed storage cells are
mounted and three or more towers continue upward to
support the deck.

(c) Jack-Up Platforms

The most widely used platforms now for exploration.
These are towed to location, where pneumatic jacks,
hydraulic jacks or electric rack and pinion drives lower the legs
to the sea floor
and then lift the hull above the sea surface to achieve the
required clearance.

(d) Semi-Submersible
When they are floating, the primary buoyancy is well
below the water surface.
They are difficult to tow.
Much more expensive to build, transport insures.

They are usually moored position with an elaborate

system of anchors, chain and tensing devices.
Depending on bottom mooring, their depth capability is
limited to shallow water depths (upto 450 m) than
platform relying on dynamic positioning.

(e) Articulated Platform

It consists of a base plate resting on the ocean bottom, a
universal swivel joint and a column with buoyancy tanks.
The column can be truss type in which case the buoyancy
tanks are attached to the truss at convenient levels.

If the column is cylindrical and water tight, the buoyancy is

offered by the watertight cylinders itself.
The cylindrical towers can be made of steel or concrete.
The articulated platforms offer lower construction cost, fewer
siting problems and an environmental cleaner method of
loading.

(f) Guyed Tower(GT)

Water depths more than 300 m, the weight and foundation
requirements are less attractive than traditional offshore
structures.
GT and the TLP are the forms quite suitable to such depths.
GT consist of a slender steel space frame and the vertical forces
on the platform are taken by a foundation base.
The base can partially penetrate the seabed.
The structure is held upright by several guy lines that run to
clump weights on the ocean floor.
The guyed-tower considered to be applicable to water depths of
about 600 m.

(g) Tension Leg Platform(TLP)

TLP consists of a buoyant structure held by tautly moored
vertical or inclined cables.
A major advantage of the TLP concept is its relative cost
insensitivity to increase water depths.
The anchor cables are held on the sea floor by large deadweight
anchors or one large gravity type seabed.
. Figure 2 shows the other types of offshore structures and their
features.

3. DESIGN CONCEPTS

Any offshore platforms should be designed for the

appropriate combination of loading condition.

Importance should also be given to environmental condition

combined with appropriate dead and live loads.

The primary methodology of design concepts any offshore

structure are almost similar, however in this lecture, only
Jacket platform is taken into consideration and discussed.

There are two methods to design any offshore platform

structures and they are,
(contnd.,)

(a) Working Stress Design (WSD) method

The stresses produced by nominal loads(unfactored)

compared with an allowable or working stress.
This allowable or working stress is obtained by dividing the
material yield stress by a factor of safety.

(b) Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) method

The design checked by, applying separate load and resistance

factors to nominal loads and nominal resistance.
It considers the possible uncertainties in the applied loads
and component resistances.

In terms of API RP 2A-LRFD (1993), it has meant the

replacement of the traditional one-third increase in allowable

stresses by separate load factors () for dead, live,

wind/wave/current and earthquake loads and resistance factors
() which vary for pile capacity, beam bending, axial
compression, etc.

ii) Design for In-place Conditions

The platform should be designed to resist

1. gravity loads;
2. wind loads
3. wave loads

4. current loads;
5. earthquake loads; and
6. accidental loads occurring during its service life.

(a)Wind Forces
The wind speeds refer to values 30ft above the earth.
The wind speeds at other elevations, a one-seventh power law
has generally been found to be adequate for elevations to
about 600ft.
If V denotes the wind speed at an elevation y, and Vo denotes
the wind speed at the 30ft elevation, then
1/ 7

y
V = Vo 30 Where y is measured in feet.

In the absence of information, over-water wind speeds are
about 10% greater than those for nearby coastal stations are
considered
(contnd)

The wind force acting on an ocean structure is the sum of the

wind forces acting on its individual parts.
For structural member such as storage tank, deck house, etc.,
the wind force arises from the viscous drag of the air on the
body and from the difference in pressure on the windward and
leeward sides.
The net force on the object to be described by an equation of
the form
F=

1
CAV
2

(b) Waves
The forces exerted by waves are usually the dominant design
criterion affecting fixed structures.
Waves are primarily caused by the action of wind on water,
which through friction transmit energy from the wind into wave
energy.
Figure 3 shows classification of waves.
A narrow range of wave periods from 5 to 15 sec, is usually
more important.
Waves in this range are referred as gravity waves and share the
highest part of total wave energy.
(contnd)

Design wave forces should be based on extreme environmental

conditions (average expected recurrence interval of 100 years).
The primary properties of the wave that affects the design are
height, period and direction.
Figure 4 shows a typical example of orientation of structure and
the wave loading.

Mathematically, it is denoted as,

F= FI+FD

Where, FI is the Inertial force and

FD is the Drag force.

Figure 5 shows the relative percentages of wind and water wave

forces on a typical template platform over its height.

(c) Currents
Even when small in magnitude, have a significant effect on
construction operations.
Influence on the movement of vessels and floating structures and
on moorings.
They change the characteristics of waves.
They exert horizontal pressures against structural surfaces and,
due to the Bernoulli effect, develop uplift or downdrag forces on
horizontal surfaces.

Create eddy patterns around structures, which may lead to

scour and erosion of the soils.

They cause vortex shedding on piles, tethers, and piping.

The vertical profile of currents is considered as decreasing
with depth as a parabolic function.

Types of currents: oceanic circulation, geostrophic. Tidal,

wind-driven and density currents, as well as currents due to
river discharge.
(contnd)

(d) Tides
Tides result from the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun.
Due to the relative masses and distances the sun exerts only half
the influence on the tides as the moon.

When the sun and moon are approximately 90o apart, that is, at
the first and third quarter of the moon, the ranges are lower; these
are called neap tides.
Other loads such as air-sea temperatures, marine growth and ice
loading are also to be considered while designing.

(iii) Design for Construction Conditions

The offshore platform in general is fabricated on the shore and

is transported to the desired offshore location by mean of a
launch barge.
The loads that occur during the operation of moving the
platform components and installing are to be considered.
In the case of WSD method, basic allowable stresses for
member design may be increased by 1/3 in keeping with normal
allowable stress condition, for installation forces.
(contd)

The dynamic loading involved during the installation should

also be considered, in design of platform.

Table 1 Load factors for dynamic effects

WSD

LFRD

Open, Exposed Sea

1.35

1.3

Sheltered location, or
lift onshore

1.15

1.15

Location

(contd)

The environmental criteria, by selecting appropriate condition,

should be used in determining the motion of the tow.
All the structural components should be analyzed for the
gravitational, inertial and hydrodynamic loads and the
components should be designed accordingly.
Large jacket platforms will extend beyond the launch barge
and will usually be subjected to submersion during tow.
In that case, the effects like slamming buoyancy and collapse
forces due the submersion are to be considered.

iv) Strength and Stability Check

(a) Axial Tension
The axial tensile stress due to factored loads should
not exceed the allowable tensile stress given in Table 2
Table 2: Allowable stress for axial tension

Allowable
Stress

LRFD

WSD

t Fy

0.6 Fy

t = resistance factor for axial tension=0.95

Fy = nominal yield strength and ft allowable stress
Where, ft is the axial tensile stress due to factored loads

(b) Axial Compression:

The axial compressive stress due to (factored) loads
should not exceed the allowable stress
fc c Fcn

c =0.85

Where, Fcn = nominal axial compressive strength

fc = axial compressive stress due to (factored) loads and
Fa = allowable axial compressive strength

i) Column Buckling
The nominal axial compressive strength for tubular
members subjected to column buckling should be
determined from the equation given in Table 3.

Table 3: Nominal axial compressive strength

(column buckling)
LRFD

WSD

Kl/r Cc
2

Fcn =

Fcn =

1.0 0.25 F
2

Fy

1/ 2

Cc =

12 2 E

F
y

Kl / r Cc
Where,

Kl / r
1

2C

3Kl / r
5/ 3

8C

Fa =

Fa

Kl / r
8C
y

12 2 E

23 ( Kl / r ) 2

=column slenderness parameter = Kl Fy

E
K
l
r

= Youngs Modulus of elasticity

= effective length factor
= unbraced length
= radius of gyration

r E

0 .5

(ii) Local Buckling

The nominal local buckling strength (stress units) values are given in Table 4.
Table 4 : Nominal axial compressive strength (local buckling)
LRFD
Elastic Local
Buckling
Inelastic
Local
Buckling

D/t
60
D / t
60

WSD

Fxe = 2CxE (t/D)

Fxe = 2CE (t/D)

Fxc = Fy

Fxc = Fy

Fxc = [1.64
0.23 (D/t)1/4]Fy

Fxc = [1.64 0.23

(D / t)1/4] Fy Fxe

Where, Fxe = nominal elastic local buckling strength

C and Cx = critical elastic buckling coefficient
D = Outside diameter
t = wall thickness
x = subscript for member longitudinal axis
Fxc = nominal inelastic local buckling strength

(c) Bending
For LRFD:
fb b Fbn and b = 0.95
Table 5: Allowable stress in bending
LRFD

D/t 10340 / Fy

10340 / Fy < D / t
20680 / Fy
20680 / Fy< D / t 300

Fbn = (Z / S)* Fy

WSD

Fb = 0.75 Fy

Fbn =

Fy D Z

1.13 2.58
Fy
Et

Fb =

Fy D

0.84 1.74
Fy
Et

Fbn =

Fy D Z

0.94 0.76
Fy
Et S

Fb =

Fy D

0.72 0.58
Fy
Et

(d) Shear
i) Beam Shear
For LRFD: fv Fvn
where

Fvn = nominal shear strength, Fy 3 , in stress units

fv = maximum shear stress due to factored loads
V = beam shear due to factored loads
A = cross sectional area and
Fv = allowable beam shear stress

2. Torsional stress
For LRFD: fvtv Fvtn
where,

fvt = torsional shear stress due to factored loads

fv = nominal torsional strength Fy 3
I = polar moment of inertia and
Mt = torsional moment and
Mvt = torsional moment due to factored load
Fvt = allowable torsional shear stress

Table 6: Maximum shear stress

LRFD and WSD
Beam Shear

fv =

Torsional Shear

fvt =

2V
A
M vt D
2I p

(e) Hoop Buckling Stress

1.

Elastic Hoop Buckling Stress(Fhe)

Fhe = 2Ch Et/D
where the critical hoop buckling coefficient Ch
Table 7: Critical hoop buckling coefficient
LRFD
Ch

0.44 t/D
0.44 t/D+

WSD

for M 1.6 D/t

0.44 t/D @ M 1.6 D/t

0.44 t/D +

0.21D / t 3
M 4 for

0.825 D/t M1.6 D/t

0.737 / (M 0.579)
0.825 D/t
0.8 for M 1.5

for 1.5 M

0.21D / t 3

@ 0.825 D/t M1.6 D/t

M4

0.736 / (M 0.636) @ 3.5 M 0.825 D/t

0.755 / (M 0.559) @ 1.5 M < 3.5
0.8 @ M 1.5

where the geometric parameter, M, is defined as

M = L 2D
L = Length of cylinder between stiffening rings
D

2. Critical Hoop Buckling Stress

Table 8: Critical hoop buckling stress

LRFD

Elastic
Buckling

Inelastic
Buckling

Fhc = Fhe
0.55 Fy

WSD

@ Fhe

F
he
y Fy

0.4

Fy
Fhe = 0.7 F
@ Fhe > 0.55 Fy

Fhc = Fhe @ Fhe 0.55 Fy

Fhc = 0.45Fy + 0.18Fhe @ 0.55Fy <

Fhe 1.6Fy
Fhc =

1.31Fy

1.15 Fy / Fhe

@ 1.6Fy < Fhe 6.2Fy

Fhc = Fy @ Fhe > 6.2Fy

(f) Interaction Equations

Interaction ratios that are to be satisfied are given in Table 9.
a jacket is considered to have failed when any of the interaction
ratios reach a value equal to 1.0.
Cmy,Cmz = reduction factors corresponding to the member y and z axes
respectively
Fey,Fez = Euler buckling strengths to member y and z axes (Fey = Fy/y2 and
Fez = Fz/z2)
y, z = column slenderness parameters for the members in y and z axes.
fby, fbz = bending stress about member y and z axes due to factored loads
fa, fband = absolute value of acting axial, resultant bending stress and hoop
fh
compression stress, respectively.
Fhc
= critical hoop stress
Faa
= Fxe/SFx and Fha = Fhe/SFh
SFb
= safety factor for bending

4. PARAMETRIC STUDY
A parametric study has been carried out by
Sundaravadivelu and Manjeet Singh Chagar (2001) to
ascertain the effect of following factors on the limiting
wave height, which cause the failure of the jacket
platform.

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Marine Growth
Wave Steepness
Flooding of the Jacket Legs
P-Delta Effect

Table 9: Member Interaction Ratios

LRFD
Combined
Axial
Compression
and
Bending

fc
1 C my f by

c Fcn b Fbn
fe

1 F
c ey

WSD

C mz f bz

1 f e

c Fez

f f by 2 f bz
c

b Fbn
2 c Fxc

0.5

1.0

fa

Fa

C f
mx f bx my by
fa
fa

Fe' x
Fe' y

1.0

Fb

f bx 2 f by2
fa

1.0
0.6Fy
Fb

0.5

when
1.0

fa
0.15,
Fa
2
2
fa f bx fby

1.0
Fa
Fb

(contd)

Combined
tension
And
bending

Combined
Axial
Compression
Bending
and
Hydrostatic
Pressure

1-cos

f f by 2 f bz
t

b Fbn
2 t Fy

0.5
2

1.0

when axial utilization exceeds

0.5 (i.e. fx > 0.5hFhe)
2

f
f x 0.5 h Fhe
h 1.0
cFxe 0.5 h Fhe h Fhe

fx = fc+fb+(0.5fh)

fa

0.6Fy

f bx2 f by2
1.0
Fb

where fbx and fby are computed

bending tensile stresses
fa (0.5f h )
f
(SFx ) b (SFb ) 1.0
Fxc
Fy
fh
(SFh ) 1.0
Fhe
f
f x 0.5Fha
h
Faa 0.5Fha Fha

(contd)

Combined
Axial
Tension
Bending
and
Hydrostatic
Pressure

A2 + B2 + 2AB 1.0

A2 + B2 + 2AB 1.0

Where

where

A=

ft

f b (0.5f h )

f f (0.5f h )
A= a b
(SFx )
Fy

t Fy

fh
B=
h Fhc

B=

= Poissons ratio=0.3

=5-

4Fhc
Fy

SF

fh
(SFh )
Fhc

= Poissons ratio = 0.3

= safety factor for

axial tension
SF = safety factor for
h
hoop compression
x

(a) Marine Growth

Marine growth is assumed to be uniform thickness from

seabed to the mean sea level,

Above the mean sea level no marine growth is assumed.

The surface finish of members is considered to be rough

where marine growth is present and smooth where marine
growth is absent.

Effect of marine growth is shown in Table 10.

The limiting wave height causing the failure of the jacket

obtained by using LRFD is about 2% more then the wave
height obtained using WSD

Table 10: Effect of Marine growth

Thickness of
marine
growth (mm)

Limiting wave height (m) causing failure

WSD

Percentage
reduction

Ratio of wave
height
for
LRFD & WSD

LRFD

Percentage
reduction

24.815

24.286

1.022

50

24.000

3.2

23.476

3.3

1.022

100

23.276

6.2

22.800

6.1

1.021

150

22.626

8.8

22.160

8.8

1.021

250

21.478

13.4

21.040

13.4

1.021

(b) Wave Steepness

The analysis is carried out for waves with steepness varying
from 1/7 to 1/30
The variation in the wave height causing failure is compared
with the Fig. 6.
The limiting wave height causing the failure of the jacket
increases with increase in wave steepness for the both LRFD and
WSD.

(c) Flooding of Jacket Legs

The effect of the flooding is to nullify the effect of hydrostatic
pressure and allow the jacket platform to withstand higher waves.
All the legs of the platform are assumed to be flooded and the
analysis is done to determine the limiting wave height causing the
failure of the jacket platform.
The flooding causes 7% and 8% increase in the limiting wave
height causing the failure of the jacket platform respectively for
LRFD and WSD procedures (Table 11)

Table 11: Effect of Flooding of Main legs

Wave height (m) causing the Ratio of Wave height
causing failure of the jacket
failure of the jacket

Main legs
Flooded

Main legs NonFlooded

for Flooded condition to

Non-Flooded condition
Ratio of Wave height
causing failure of the jacket
for Flooded condition to
Non-Flooded condition

LRFD

25.872

24.193

1.07

WSD

25.443

23.586

1.08

(d) P Delta Effect

In case of linear analysis, it is assumed that there is no
interaction between axial forces and bending moments.
If the axial forces are large or if the member is slender, it may
be necessary to perform a more accurate analysis.

In such case additional bending moments due to the axial forces

when the member deflects laterally should be considered.
This axial flexural interaction is called the P Delta effect.
The lateral deflection because of this are more as compared to
the case when only lateral force or bending moment is present.
(contd)

The deflections at the deck of the jacket platform were

calculated for a wave height 24m, using WSD and LRFD and
the effect of P Delta is to increase the deflection by 0.2% for
WSD and 0.27% for LRFD.
The member forces and moments derived from the load
combinations are used to check the stability in accordance with
API RP 2A-LRFD (1993), API RP 2A-WSD (1993).
The strength and stability interaction ratios are obtained using
bending and axial stress interaction equations given in Table 9.
The scatter diagrams of interaction ratios of WSD vs LRFD for
all the members are shown in Fig. 7.
A best-fit line has been drawn for each case and the percentage
variation from the equality line has been calculated as 31.3%

5. CONNECTIONS
The components are connected together to form structure and the
connection may be at the ends of tension or compression
members.

The strength of connection should satisfy the design loads, but

not less than 50% of the effective strength
Effective strength:The buckling load for member loaded is either
tension or compression, and as the yield load for member
primarily load in tension.
The above rule can be considered satisfied for simple tubular
joints when the following condition is obtained.
Fy b ( sin )
1.0
Fy (11 1.5 /)

6. MINIMUM DECK CLEARANCE

When waves strike a platforms deck and equipment, large forces
exerted on it.
The bottom of the lowest deck should be located at an elevation,
which will clear the calculated crest of the design wave with
adequate allowance for safety.
The wave crest elevations, above storm water level including
guideline storm tide, computed from appropriate wave theories.

Air gap, of at least 1.5m should be added to the crest elevation to

allow for unexpected platform settlement, water depth uncertainty,
and for possibility of extreme waves.
(contd)

This air gap decides the minimum acceptance elevation of the

bottom beam of the deck to avoid waves striking the deck.

An additional air gap should also be provided for any known or

predicted long-term seafloor subsidence.
When it is needed to position any component below the lower
deck in the designated air gap, then design wave crest pressure
should also be considered in their design.

7. STRUCTURAL MATERIALS
The offshore structural materials should be selected based on the
recommendations provided by the (API), (AISC) and Det Norske
Veritas (DNV).
The structural steel materials for specific conditions can follow the
detailed recommendations given in the above codes.
Many offshore structural components are made of hollow steel
pipes.

The minimum requirement for fabrication and service should

satisfy API, ASTM A139, ASTM A252, ASTM A381 or ASTM
A671 codes.
(contd)

The concrete material are to be selected with due attention to

their strength and durability in the marine environment.
The concrete mix to be selected on the basis of shear strength,
bond strength and workability for underwater placement
including cohesiveness and flowability.

At any cases, the water cement ratio should be less than 0.45.
In general, all structural material should be selected with due
consideration to chemical resistance, mechanical resistance
and corrosion resistance.

8. CORROSION
Almost all metals components suffer corrosion to some extent,
due to the action of water and the atmosphere.
Wet-corrosion: Metals often corrode due to the electrochemical
action.
Dry-corrosion: Even in the absence of water, the non-metallic
materials are attacked by the chemical corrosive media
The three primary zones of corrosion in any typical offshore
structure are immerse, splash and atmospheric.
Figure 9 shows the various corrosion zones.

(contd)

Galvanic corrosion predominates in the immersed zone and can be

protected either by a system of sacrificial galvanized anodes or by
impressed current generatorrectifier with inert anodes.
The splash zone is the most critical area of corrosion and it is
desirable to minimize the steel in this area.
Either non-corrosion coverings or increasing thickness of steel
member can be adopted as protective measures.
The least corrosion rate occurs on the member, which are
positioned in the atmospheric zone.
Zinc painting over the members would be sufficient, but frequent
inspection of coatings is required.

9. TRANSPORTATION AND INSTALLATION

Generally, offshore structures are fabricated near the coast and

then transported to the offshore site and erected.
In particular, Jacket platform consisting of the tower and deck are
constructed separately.
Initially, the jacket tower is erected at the site and then the upper
deck is attached over it.
The transportation and installation of jacket tower can be done is
two ways, either by launch barge method or by flotation method.

Transportation and installation procedure for

a jacket structure
Transportation and installation procedure for a typical
offshore jacket structure is shown in Fig. 10
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)

Load out
Towing
Launching
Floating
Upending
Vertical position
Piling
Deck mating

The fabricated jacket tower is loaded out in the launch barge.

Launch barge is a rectangular floating vessel with controlled
ballasting and de-watering system for draft of floatation.
The horizontally floating platform is selectively ballasted to bring
it into vertical position.

After upending, the platform is positioned at the site for the

pilling to be installed.
Jacket towers of long length can not be launched by means of
barge, which may be extending the length of the barge.
The positioning of the jacket on the barge required predesigned
structural arrangements to avoid sinking of barge.

The loaded barge with jacket is then towed to the site where the
platform to be launched.
At the site, the jacket is allowed to skid or slide, by means of
tiling the barge.
The tower would be made to float by large diameter tubes to
offer sufficient buoyancy to the tower floating horizontally.

Once the tower floats, then the tower is towed by means of two
or more tugboats.
As an alternate to the launch barge method, a newly developed
method in which floating pontoon is used.
The pontoon consists of large diameter circular tubes that
provides necessary buoyancy.

10. REFERENCES
1. American Petroleum Institute (1993), Recommended practice for Planning, Designing and
Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms-Working Stress Design, API RP 2A-WSD, 20th Edition.
2. American Petroleum Institute (1993), Recommended practice for Planning, Designing and
Constructing Fixed Offshore Platforms-Load and Resistance Factor Design, API RP 2A-LRFD,
1st Edition.
3. Ben C. Gerwick, Jr., Construction of Marine and Offshore Structures, Second Edition,
CRC Press.
4. Det Norske Vertitas, 1993, Part 3 Chapter 1, Rules for Classification of Fixed Offshore
Installations; Structures.
5. Graff, W,J., Introduction to Offshore Structures: Design, Fabrication and Installation,
Gulf Publishing Company.
6. Manjeet Singh Chagar, 1998, Comparison of LRFD and WSD procedures for Jacket
Platforms, M.Tech Thesis, Department of Ocean Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology
Madras.
7. Shore Protection Manual, Vol.I and Vol.II, 1984, Department of the Army, US army corps
of Engineers, Fourth Edition.
8. Sundaravadivelu, R and Manjeet Singh Chagar, 2001, Comparison of LRFD and WSD
procedures for Jacket Platform, Proceedings of First Asia Pacific Conference on Offshore
Systems (APCOS), April 23-26, 2001, Malaysia, pp. 51-56.
9. Thomas H. Dawson, Offshore Structural Engineering, Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Fig.5 Relative values of wind, wave and other loads