Stoichiometry

Atomic Mass
The Mole concept
Molar Mass
Percent Composition of Compounds
Determination of Formula of Compounds
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
Interpreting balance equations, and
Reaction Stoichiometry and Calculations

Atomic Masses
Absolute masses of atoms cannot be obtained
too small to measure the mass directly;
Relative atomic masses are used instead masses
relative to a chosen standard or reference.
Carbon-12 is used as atomic mass reference it is
assigned an atomic mass of 12 u exactly;
Other atoms are assigned masses relative to that of
carbon-12;
Relative atomic masses are determined using mass
spectrometer;

A Schematic Diagram of Mass

Spectrophotometer

Isotope Mass of CO2

Mass Spectrum of Chlorine

Atomic Mass Spectrum of Mercury

Calculation of Relative Atomic Masses

Example-1:
An atomic mass spectrum gives atomic mass ratio of
oxygen atom to carbon-12 as 1.3329:1. If the atomic
mass of carbon-12 is exactly 12 u, what is the atomic
mass of oxygen?
Atomic mass of oxygen = 1.3329 x 12 u
= 15.995 u

Calculation of Average Atomic Masses

Example-2:
Chlorine is composed of two stable naturally occurring
isotopes: chlorine-35 (75.76%; 34.9689 u) and
chlorine-37 (24.24%; 36.9659 u). What is the average
atomic mass of copper?
Atomic mass of chlorine
= (0.7576 x 34.9689 u) + (0.2424 x 36.9659 u)
= 35.45 u (as given in the periodic table)

Calculation of Average Atomic Masses

Example-3:
Copper is composed of two naturally occurring
isotopes: copper-63 (69.09%; 62.93 u) and
copper-65 (30.91%; 64.93 u). What is the
average atomic mass of copper?
Atomic mass of copper
= (0.6909 x 62.93 u) + (0.3091 x 64.93 u)
= 63.55 u (as given in the periodic table)

Exercise #1: Relative Atomic Mass

A mass spectrometer computed the atomic mass
ratio of fluorine to carbon-12 as 1.5832-to-1. If the
atomic mass of carbon-12 is 12 u (exactly), what
is the atomic mass of fluorine in u?

(Answer: 18.998 u)

Exercise #2: Average Atomic Mass

Natural boron is composed of two isotopes:
19.78% boron-10 (atomic mass = 10.0129 amu)
and 80.22% boron-11 (atomic mass = 11.0093
amu). What is the average atomic mass of
naturally occurring boron?
(Answer: 10.81 u)

Molar Quantity
The Mole:
A quantity that contains the Avogadros
number of items;
Avogadros number = 6.022 x 1023
12.01 g of carbon contains the Avogadros
number of carbon atoms.
1 mole of carbon = 12.01 g
1 carbon atom = 12.01 u (or amu)

Gram-Atomic Mass

Mass of 1 carbon-12 atom = 12 u (exactly);

Mass of 1 mole of carbon-12 = 12 g;
Mass of 1 oxygen atom = 16.00 u
Mass of 1 mole of oxygen = 16.00 g
Gram-atomic mass = mass (in grams) of 1 mole of
an element that is, the mass (in grams) that
contains the Avogadros number of atoms of that
element.
gram-atomic mass is the molar mass of an element
in grams.

Atomic Mass & Gram-Atomic Mass

Examples:
Element

Carbon
Oxygen
Aluminum
Silicon
Gold

Atomic mass

Gram-atomic mass

12.01 u
16.00 u
26.98 u
28.09 u
197.0 u

12.01 g/mol
16.00 g/mol
26.98 g/mol
28.09 g/mol
197.0 g/mol

Molecular Mass and Molar Mass

Molecular mass = the mass of a molecule in u;
Molar mass = the mass of one mole of an element
or a compound, expressed in grams.
Examples:
Molecular Mass
Molar Mass
N2
28.02 u
28.02 g/mol
H2O
18.02 u
18.02 g/mol
C8H18 114.22 u
114.22 g/mol

Calculating Molar Mass

Calculating the molar mass of sucrose, C12H22O11:
(12 x 12.01 g) + (22 x 1.008 g) + (11 x 16.00 g)
= 342.3 g/mole
Molar mass of ammonium hydrogen phosphate,
(NH4)2HPO4:
(2 x 14.01 g) + (9 x 1.008 g) + (1 x 30.97 g) + (4 x 16.00 g)

= 132.06 g/mole

Percent Composition of a Compound

Composition of aluminum sulfate, Al2(SO4)3:
Molar mass of Al2(SO4)3 =
(2 x 26.98 g) + (3 x 32.06 g) + (12 x 16.00 g) = 342.14 g/mole

Mass percent of Al = (53.96 g/342.14 g) x 100% = 15.77%

Mass percent of S = (96.18 g/342.14 g) x 100% = 28.11%
Mass percent of O = (192.0 g/342.14 g) x 100% = 56.12%

Formula of Compounds
Empirical Formula
A chemical formula that represents a simple whole
number ratio of the number of moles of elements in the
compound. Examples: MgO, Cu2S, CH2O, etc.

Molecular Formula
A formula that shows the actual number of atoms of
each type in a molecule.
Examples: C4H10, C6H6, C6H12O6.

Empirical Formula-1
Empirical formula from composition:
Example: A compound containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen has
the following composition (by mass percent): 68.12% C, 13.73%
H, and 18.15% O, Determine its empirical formula.
Solution:
Use mass percent to calculate mole and mole ratio of C:H:O
Mole of C = 68.12 g x (1 mol C/12.01 g) = 5.672 mol C
Mole of H = 13.73 g x (1 mol H/1.008 g) = 13.62 mol H
Mole of O = 18.15 g x (1 mol O/16.00 g) = 1.134 mol O
Divide all moles by mole of O (smallest value) to get simple ratio:
5.672 mol C/1.134 mol O = 5; 13.62 mol H/1.134 mol O = 12, and
1.134 mol O/1.134 mol O = 1;

Mole ratio: 5C:12H:1O Empirical formula = C5H12O

Empirical Formula-2
Empirical formula from mass of elements in a sample of compound
Example: When 1.96 g of phosphorus is burned, 4.49 g of a
phosphorus oxide is obtained. Calculate the empirical formula of
the phosphorus oxide.
Solution:
Calculate moles of P and O in sample and obtain a simple mole ratio;
Mole of P = 1.96 g P x (1 mol/30.97 g) = 0.0633 mol P;
Mole of O = (4.49 g 1.96 g) x (1 mol/16.00 g) = 0.158 mol O;
Divide by mole of P (smaller value) to get a simple mole ratio:
0.0633 mol P/0.0633 = 1 mol P; 0.158 mol O/0.0633 = 2.5 mol O
Mole ratio: 1 mol P to 2.5 mol O, OR 2 mol P to 5 mol O

Empirical formula = P2O5

Empirical Formula-3

Empirical formula from data of combustion reaction:

Example: A compound is composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. When 2.32
g of this compound is burned in excess of oxygen, it produces 5.28 g of CO2 gas
and 2.16 g of water. Calculate the composition (in mass percent) of the
compound and determine its empirical formula.

Solution:
Find mass of C, H, and O in the sample and then calculate their mass
percent:
Mass of C = 5.28 g CO2 x (12.01 g C/44.01 g CO2) = 1.44 g
Mass % of C = (1.44 g C/2.32 g sample) x 100% = 62.1%
Mass of H = 2.16 g H2O x (2 x 1.008 g/18.02 g H2O) = 0.24 g
Mass % of H = (0.242 g H/2.32 g sample) x 100% = 10.4%
Mass of O = 2.32 g sample 1.44 g C 0.24 g H = 0.64 g
Mass % of O = 100 62.1% C 10.4% H = 27.5%

Derive empirical formula from these mass percent composition

(next slide)

Empirical Formula-3
Empirical formula from data of combustion (continued):
Calculate mole and simple mole ratio from calculated mass of each
element:
Mole of C = 1.44 g C x (1 mol/12.01 g) = 0.12 mol
Mole of H = 0.242 g x (1 mol/1.008 g) = 0.24 mol
Mole of O = 0.64 g x (1 mol/16.00 g) = 0.04 mol
Divide all moles by mole of O (smallest mole) to obtain a simple ratio:
0.12 mol C/0.04 = 3 mol C; 0.24 mol H/0.04 = 6 mol H;
0.04 mol O/0.04 = 1 mol O
Simple molar ratio: 3 mol C : 6 mol H : 1 mol O

Empirical formula: C3H6O

Molecular Formula
Molecular formula is derived from empirical formula and molecular
mass, which is obtained independently
Empirical formula = CxHyOz; molecular formula = (CxHyOz)n,
where n = (molecular mass/empirical formula mass)
Example:
A compound has an empirical formula C3H6O and its molecular
formula is 116.2 u. What is the molecular formula?
Solution:
Empirical formula mass = (2 x 12.01 u) + (6 x 1.008 u) + 16.00 u
= 58.1 u
Molecular formula = (C3H6O)n; where n = (116.2 u/58.1 u) = 2
Incorrect molecular formula = (C3H6O)2;

Correct molecular formula = C6H12O2

Exercise #3: Determination of Formulas

A 2.00-gram sample of phosphorus is completely
reacted with oxygen gas, which yields 4.58 g of
product that is composed of only phosphorus and
oxygen. In separate analyses, the compound is
found to have molar mass of about 284 g/mol.
(a) Determine the empirical and molecular
formulas of the compound. (b) Write an equation
for the reaction of phosphorus with oxygen gas.
(Answer: P2O5; P4O10; 4P + 5 O2 P4O10)

Chemical Equation #1
Description of reaction:
Iron reacts with oxygen gas and forms solid
iron(III) oxide:
Identity: reactants = iron (Fe) and oxygen gas
(O2); product = iron(III) oxide
Chemical equation: Fe(s) + O2(g) Fe2O3(s)
Balanced equation:
4Fe(s) + 3 O2(g) 2Fe2O3(s)

Chemical Equation #2
Description of reaction:
Phosphorus reacts with oxygen gas to form
solid tetraphosphorus decoxide.
Equation: P(s) + O2(g) P4O10(s)
Balanced eqn.: 4P(s) + 5 O2(g) P4O10(s)

Chemical Equation #3
Description of reaction:
Propane gas (C3H8) is burned in air (excess of oxygen)
to form carbon dioxide gas and water vapor;
Identity: reactants = C3H8(g) and O2(g);
products = CO2(g) and H2O(g);
Equation: C3H8(g) + O2(g) CO2(g) + H2O(g);
Balanced equation:
C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g)

Chemical Equation 4
Description of reaction:
Ammonia gas (NH3) reacts with oxygen gas to
form nitrogen monoxide gas and water vapor;
Equation: NH3(g) + O2(g) NO(g) + H2O(g);
Balancing the equation:
2NH3(g) + 5/2 O2(g) 2NO(g) + 3H2O(g);
Multiply throughout by 2 to get rid of the fraction:

4NH3(g) + 5 O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g);

Balancing Chemical Equations

Rules for balancing equations:
1.
Use smallest integer coefficients in front of each reactants and
products as necessary; coefficient 1 need not be indicated;
2.
The formula of the substances in the equation MUST NOT be
changed.

Helpful steps in balancing equations:

1.
Begin with the compound that contains the most atoms or types of
atoms.
2.
Balance elements that appear only once on each side of the arrow.
3.
Next balance elements that appear more than once on either side.
4.
Balance free elements last.
5.
Finally, check that smallest whole number coefficients are used.

Stoichiometry
Stoichiometry = the quantitative relationships between
one reactant to another, or between a reactant and
products in a chemical reaction.
Interpreting balanced equations:
Example: C3H8(g) + 5 O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O(g);
The equation implies that:
1 C3H8 molecule reacts with 5 O2 molecules to produce
3 CO2 molecules and 4 H2O molecules; OR
1 mole of C3H8 reacts with 5 moles of O2 to produce 3
moles of CO2 and 4 moles of H2O.

Stoichiometric Calculations
Mole-to-mole relationship:
Example: In the following reaction, if 6.0 moles of octane, C8H18, is
completely combusted in excess of oxygen gas, how many moles of
CO2 and H2O, respectively, will be formed? How many moles of O2
does it consumed?
Reaction: 2C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
Calculations:
Mole CO2 formed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (16 mol CO2/2mol C8H18) = 48 moles
Mole H2O formed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (18 mol H2O/2mol C8H18) = 54 moles
Mole O2 consumed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (25 mol O2/2mol C8H18) = 75 moles

Stoichiometric Calculations
Mass-to-mole-to-mole-to-mass relationship:
Example-1: In the following reaction, if 690 g of octane, C8H18, is
completely combusted in excess of oxygen gas, how many grams of
CO2 are formed?
Reaction: 2C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
Calculation-1:
Moles C8H18 reacted = 690 g C8H18 x (1 mol/114.2 g) = 6.0 moles
Moles CO2 formed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (16 mol CO2/2 mol C8H18)

= 48 moles CO2
Mass of CO2 formed = 48 mol CO2 x (44.01 g/mol) = 2.1 x 103 g

Stoichiometric Calculations
Mass-to-mole-to-mole-to-mass relationship:
Example-2: In the following reaction, if 690 g of octane, C8H18, is
completely combusted in excess of oxygen gas, how many grams of
H2O are formed?
Reaction: 2C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
Calculation-2:
Moles C8H18 reacted = 690 g C8H18 x (1 mol/114.2 g) = 6.0 moles
Moles H2O formed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (18 mol H2O/2 mol C8H18)

= 54 moles CO2
Mass of H2O formed = 54 mol H2O x (18.02 g/mol) = 970 g

Stoichiometric Calculations
Mass-to-mole-to-mole-to-mass relationship:
Example-3: In the following reaction, if 690 g of octane, C8H18, is
completely combusted in excess of oxygen gas, how many grams of
oxygen gas are consumed?
Reaction: 2C8H18(l) + 25 O2(g) 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
Calculation-3:
Moles C8H18 reacted = 690 g C8H18 x (1 mol/114.2 g) = 6.0 moles
Moles O2 consumed = 6.0 mol C8H18 x (25 mol O2/2 mol C8H18)

= 75 moles O2
Mass of H2O formed = 75 mol O2 x (32.00 g/mol) = 2.4 x 103 g g

Stoichiometry Involving Limiting Reactant

Limiting reactant
one that got completely consumed in a
chemical reaction before the other
reactants.
Product yields depend on the amount of
limiting reactant

A Reaction Stoichiometry
Example:
In the reaction: 2Cu(s) + S(s) Cu2S(s),
2 moles of copper are required to react completely with
1 mole of sulfur, which will produce 1 mole of
copper(I) sulfide.
If a reaction is carried out using 1 mole of copper and 1
mole of sulfur, then copper will be the limiting reactant
and sulfur is in excess. Only 0.5 mole of copper(I)
sulfide is obtained.

Exercise #4: Stoichiometry Calculations

Ammonia is produced from the reaction with
hydrogen according to the following equation:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)
If 25 N2 molecules are reacted with 60 H2
molecules in a sealed container, which molecules
will be completely consumed? How many NH3
molecules are formed?
(Answer: H2; 40 NH3 molecules)

Exercise #5: Limiting Reactants and

Reaction Yields
Ammonia is produced in the following reaction:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

(a) If 118 g of nitrogen gas is reacted with 31.5 g of
hydrogen gas, which reactant will be completely consumed
at the end of the reaction? (b) How many grams of the
excess reactant will remain (unreacted)? (c) How many
grams ammonia will be produced when the limiting
reactant is completely reacted and the yield is 100%?
(Answer: (a) N2; (b) 6.0 g; (c) 143.4 g of NH3)

Theoretical, Actual and Percent Yields

Theoretical yield:
yield of product calculated based on the stoichiometry
of balanced equation and amount of limiting reactant
(assuming the reaction goes to completion and the
limiting reactant is completely consumed).
Actual Yield:
Yield of product actually obtained from experiment
Percent Yield = (Actual yield/Theoretical yield) x 100%

Exercise #6: Limiting Reactant & Yields

In an ammonia production, the reactor is charged with N2
and H2 gases at flow rates of 805 g and 195 g per minute,
respectively, at 227oC, and the reaction is as follows:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 3 NH3(g)

(a) What is the rate (in g/min) that ammonia is produced if
the yield is 100%? (b) If the reaction produces 915 g of
NH3 per minute, calculate the percentage yield of the
reaction.
(Answer: (a) 978.5 g/min; (b) Yield = 93.5%)