Contents

1) Introduction
2) Types of Flows

3) Basic Requirements for Flow Measurement

4) Definition of Quantities to be Measured
5) Types of Measurement

6) Types of Flow Meters

7) Selection of Flow Meters
8) Flow Measurement Information
9) Questions & Answers

Introduction
Since 1989 there were at least 23 distinct type of
technologies available for the measurement of flow in
closed conduit. Flow meters selection are part of the
basic art of the instrument engineer, and while only
handful of these technologies contribute to the majority
of installations.
And wide product knowledge is essential to find the
most cost effective solution to any flow measurement
application.

Types of Flows
Reynolds Number

The performance of flowmeters is also influenced by a dimensionless unit called the

Reynolds Number. It is defined as the ratio of the liquid's inertial forces to its drag
forces.
The Reynolds number is used for determined whether a flow is laminar or turbulent.
Laminar flow within pipes will occur when the Reynolds number is below the critical
Reynolds number of 2300 and turbulent flow when it is above 2300. The value of 2300
has been determined experimentally and a certain range around this value is considered
the transition region between laminar and turbulent flow.

Or
s = Mean Fluid Velocity,
- (Absolute) Dynamic fluid Viscosity
v = Kinematics Fluid Viscosity ( = /)
= Fluid Density

L = Characteristic Length (Equal to diameter, 2r if a Cross Section is Circular)

Types of Flows

Basic Requirements for Flow Measurement

Ability to Calibrate
Ability to Integrate Flow Fluctuation

Easy Integration with Piping System

High Accuracy
High Turn-Down Ratio
Low Cost
Low Sensitivity to Dirt Particles
Low Pressure Loss
No Moving Parts

Resistant to Corrosion and Erosion

Definition of Quantities to be measured

Volume Flow Rate

The definition of volume flow rate is the volume of fluid that flows
past a given cross sectional area per second. Therefore,

V = A
V = Volume Flow Rate
A = Cross Section Area
= Velocity of Fluid
Standard SI Unit is m3/hr
Other Common Units :
1L/s = 103 cm3/s = 10-3 m3/s
1gal/s = 3.788 L/s = 0.003788 m3/s
1cf/min = 4.719x10-4 m3/s

Definition of Quantities to be Measured

Mass Flow Rate

The definition of mass flow rate is the number of kilograms of

mass flow that flows past a given cross sectional area per second.
Therefore,
m = V = A
m = Mass Flow Rate
= Specific Density
V = Volume Flow Rate
A = Cross Section Area
= Velocity of Fluid

Standard SI Unit is kg/hr

Types of Measurement
Direct Rate Measurement

Required large device if the volume rates are high. And in case a
smaller device is used then the measured values will not be
accurate.
Fluctuations in the measuring values due to the opening/closing of
valves during start/stop of the measurements.
Devices that measure the volume/mass of the fluid and the timing
may not be concurrent.

Types of Measurement
Direct Rate Measurement

Type of Measurement
Indirect Rate Measurement

For many practical applications, indirect measuring techniques are

employed using various kind of principles.
Here are some of the basic working principles:
Differential Pressure
Force on Bodies in the Flow

Heat Transfer
Corriolis Force
Magneto-Inductive
Frequency of Vortices
Ultrasonic

Type of Flowmeters
1.

Correlation Method

13. Rotary Vane

2.

Corriolis

14. Swirl

3.

Elbow Tap Elbow Meter

15. Target

4.

Electro-Magnetic

16. Thermal Dispersion

5.

Flow Nozzles

17. Turbine

6.

Flow Tube

18. Ultrasonic Doppler

7.

Nutating Disk

19. Ultrasonic Transit Time

8.

Orifices

20. Variable Area

9.

Oval Gear

21. Venturi Tube

10. Pitot Tube

22. Vortex

11. Positive Mass

23. Weir & Flume

12. Reciprocating Piston

Type of Flowmeters
Industrial Flowmeter Usage

Type of Flowmeters

Orifice, Nozzle & Venturi Differential Pressure

Basic Equation

v = Fluid Velocity
Q = Volume Flow Rate
A = Cross Sectional Area of Pipe
m = Mass Flow Rate
k = Constant
h = Differential Pressure
p = Density of Fluid

The (lateral) pressure exerted by an

incompressible fluid varies inversely
with the square of the speed of the
fluid.

Type of Flowmeters

Orifice, Nozzle & Venturi Differential Pressure

Basic Equation

QA = Flow (m3/hr)

A) Liquid Volumetric

QB = Flow (Nm3/hr) at 0 0C & 1.013 bara

QC = Flow (kg/hr)

B) Gas Volumetric

S = Specific Gravity (Air = 1)

D = Density at actual conditions (kg/m3)
A = Pipe Internal C.S.A (cm2)
Tf = Actual Temperature (0C)
Pf = Actual Pressure (bara)

C) Liquid/Gas Mass

K = TORBAR Coefficient (See Table)

The orifice, nozzle and venturi flow

meters use the Bernoullis Equation
to calculate the fluid flow rate by
using the pressure difference
between an obstruction in the flow.

Type of Flowmeters
Bernoullis Equation
For Pitot Tube:
P + 2 + gh = Constant

If no change in the elevation, gh = 0 = z

And point 2 is stagnation point, i.e.

2 = 0

P = Static Pressure
= Density of Fluid
v = Velocity of Fluid
g = Gravitational Acceleration (9.81m/s2)
h = Height

Type of Flowmeters
Thermal Mass

Q = WCp (T2-T1) and therefore

W = Q/Cp (T2-T1)
Q = Heat Transfer
W = Mass Flow Rate
Cp = Specific Heat of Fluid
T1 = Temperature Upstream
T2 = Temperature Downstream

Type of Flowmeters
Thermal Mass

Type of Flowmeters
Thermal Mass

Type of Flowmeters
Turbine

Working Principle
Reluctance
The coil is a permanent magnet and the turbine blades are made of a material attracted to
magnets. As each blade passes the coil, a voltage is generated in the coil. Each pulse
represents a discrete volume of liquid. The number of pulses per unit volume is called the
meter's K-factor.
Inductance
A permanent magnet is embedded in the rotor, or the blades of the rotor are made of
permanently magnetized material. As each blade passes the coil, it generates a voltage pulse. In
some designs, only one blade is magnetic and the pulse represents a complete revolution of the
rotor.
Capacitive
Capacitive sensors produce a sine wave by generating an RF signal that is amplitude-modulated
by the movement of the rotor blades.
Hall-Effect
Hall-effect transistors also can be used. These transistors change their state when they are in the
presence of a very low strength (on the order of 25 gauss) magnetic field.

Type of Flowmeters
Turbine

Type of Flowmeters
Turbine

Type of Flowmeters
Turbine

Type of Flowmeters
Electromagnetic

The operation of magnetic flow meters is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction. Magflow meters can detect the flow of conductive fluids only. Early
magflow meter designs required a minimum fluidic conductivity of 1-5 microsiemens
per centimeter for their operation. The newer designs have reduced that requirement
a hundredfold to between 0.05 and 0.1.

E = BDV/C
E = Induced Voltage
B = Magnetic Field Strength

D = Inner Diameter of Pipe

V = Average Velocity
C = Constant

Type of Flowmeters
Electromagnetic

The magnetic flow meters coil can be powered by either alternating or direct
current.
In AC excitation, line voltage is applied to the magnetic coils and as a result, the flow
signal (at constant flow) will also look like a sine wave. The amplitude of the wave is
proportional to velocity. Addition to the flow signal, noise voltages can be induced in
the electrode loop. Out-of-phase noise is easily filtered, but in-phase noise requires
that the flow be stopped (with the pipe full) and the transmitter output set to zero.
The main problem with ac magflow meter designs is that noise can vary with process
conditions and frequent re-zeroing is required to maintain accuracy.
And as for DC excitation designs, a low frequency (7-30 Hz) dc pulse is used to
excite the magnetic coils. When the coils are pulsed on the transmitter reads both
the flow and noise signals. In between pulses, the transmitter sees only the noise
signal. Therefore, the noise can be continuously eliminated after each cycle.

Type of Flowmeters
Electromagnetic

Today, DC excitation is used in about 85% of installations while AC types

claim the other 15% when justified by the following conditions:

When
When
When
When

air is entrained in large quantities in the process stream.

the process is slurry and the solid particle sizes are not uniform.
the solid phase is not homogeneously mixed within the liquid.
the flow is pulsating at a frequency under 15 Hz.

Type of Flowmeters
Electromagnetic

E = Induced Voltage
B = Magnetic Field Strength
D = Inner Diameter of Pipe
V = Average Velocity
C = Constant

E = BDV/C

C is a constant to take care of the engineering proper units

Type of Flowmeters
Electromagnetic

Type of Flowmeters
Corriolis

The principle of angular momentum can be best described by Newtons 2nd Law of angular
motion and the definitions using these following notations:
Newtons 2nd Law of angular motion states that
= I and defines that H = I and since by definition I = mr2
Then = mr2 and then H = mr2
Since = /t then becomes = mr2 * /t and solving mass flow rate, m/t we get
m/t = /r2 also divide H = mr2 by t then H/t = m/t * r2
H = Angular Momentum
I = Moment of Inertia
= Angular Velocity
Y = Torque
= Angular Acceleration
r = Torque of Gyration
m = Mass
t = Time

Type of Flowmeters
Corriolis

Type of Flowmeters
Corriolis

Type of Flowmeters
Corriolis

Type of Flowmeters
Positive Displacement

Positive displacement meters provide high accuracy, 0.1% of actual flow rate in
some cases and good repeatability as high as 0.05% of reading. Accuracy is not
affected by pulsating flow unless it entrains air or gas in the fluid. PD meters do not
require a power supply for their operation and do not require straight upstream and
downstream pipe runs for their installation. Typically, PD meters are available 1 up
to 12 in size and can operate with turndowns as high as 100:1, although ranges of
15:1 or lower are much more common. Slippage in the flowmeter is reduced and
metering accuracy is therefore increased as the viscosity of the process fluid
increases.

The process fluid must be clean. Particles greater than 100 microns in size must be
removed by filtering. PD meters operate with small clearances between their
precision-machined parts; wear rapidly destroys their accuracy. For this reason, PD
meters are generally not recommended for measuring slurries or abrasive fluids. In
clean fluid services, however, their precision and wide rangeability make them ideal
for custody transfer and batch charging. They are most widely used as household
water meters. Millions of such units are produced annually at a unit cost of less than
US$50. In industrial and petrochemical applications, PD meters are commonly used
for batch charging of both liquids and gases.

32

September 23, 2004

Type of Flowmeters
Positive Displacement

33

September 23, 2004

Type of Flowmeters
Positive Displacement

34

September 23, 2004

Type of Flowmeters
Vortex

Types of Working Principles

1.

Vortex Shedding

2.

Vortex Precession

3.

Fluidic Oscillation (Coanda Effect)

Type of Flowmeters
Vortex

Vortex shedding frequency is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid in the pipe and
therefore to volumetric flow rate. The shedding frequency is independent of fluid properties such
as density, viscosity, conductivity, etc., except that the flow must be turbulent for vortex shedding
to occur. The relationship between vortex frequency and fluid velocity is:
St = f (d/v)
Q = AV = (AfdB)/St
Q = fK
St = Strouhal Number
f = Vortex Shedding Frequency
d = Width of the Bluff Body
A = Cross Sectional Area
V = Average Fluid Velocity
B = Blockage Factor
K = Meter Coefficient

Type of Flowmeters
Vortex

The value of the Strouhal number is determined experimentally, and is generally

found to be constant over a wide range of Reynolds numbers. The Strouhal number
represents the ratio of the interval between vortex shedding (l) and bluff body width
(d), which is about six. The Strouhal number is a dimensionless calibration factor
used to characterize various bluff bodies. If their Strouhal number is the same, then
two different bluff bodies will perform and behave similarly.

Type of Flowmeters
Vortex Shedding

St = Strouhal Number
f = Vortex Shedding Frequency
d = Width of the Bluff Body
A = Cross Sectional Area
V = Average Fluid Velocity
B = Blockage Factor
K = Meter Coefficient
Q = AV = (AfdB)/St

Type of Flowmeters
Vortex Shedding

Type of Flowmeters
Vortex Precession

Vortex Precession

Type of Flowmeters

Fluidic Oscillation (Coanda Effect)

1.

Fluidic Oscillation (Coanda Effect)

Type of Flowmeters
Ultrasonic

Ultrasonic waves travel in the same manner as light or microwaves however being an
Elastic waves, they can propagates through any substance like solid, liquid and
gases. And by utilizing the properties of ultrasonic waves, clamp on flowmeters with
unique feature of being able to measure fluid flow in the pipe externally was
developed.
Generally, ultrasonic flowmeters works in 2 different kind of principles:

1)

Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flowmeter

The Doppler Effect Ultrasonic Flowmeter uses reflected ultrasonic
sound to measure the fluid velocity. By measuring the frequency shift
between the ultrasonic frequency source, the receiver and the fluid
carrier. In this the relative motion are measured. The resulting
frequency shift is named the Doppler Effect.

2)

Transit Time Difference Ultrasonic Flowmeter

With the Time of Flight Ultrasonic Flowmeter the time for the sound to
travel between a transmitter and a receiver is measured. This method
is not dependable on the particles in the fluid.

Type of Flowmeters
Ultrasonic

Cross
Sectional
Area
D2
Q=
x
4

Upstream Sensor

Kdt
Vf =
TL
1
K

Average
Velocity
on C.S.A
D
T
x
x
sin2f (T0 - )2
Average
Velocity
on Propagation
Path

Q = Flow Rate
D = Inner Pipe Diameter
K = Conversion Factor of Average Velocity
f = Incident angle into liquid
T1 & T2= Transit time
T0 = Transit time between sensors when flow is at rest (T1+ T2 )/2
= Transit time in pipe walls and sensors = T = T2T1
Note that ultrasonic waves are carried with the motion of fluid

Q
Cf

/2

/2
T1
T2

Downstream
Sensor

Type of Flowmeters
Ultrasonic

Type of Flowmeters
Ultrasonic

Selection of Flowmeters
Measuring
Media

Application

Ultrasonic

Electromagnetic

Differential Pressure

Vortex

Fluid

Gas

Vapor

Slurry

Control

Monitor

Supply

-40 to 200 C

-20 to 120 C

-40 to 600 C

-10 to 200 C

-1 to 2MPa

-0.1 to 42MPa

5MPa

Pressure Loss

None

None

Yes

Yes

Rangeability

Large

Large

Large

Large

13 ~ 6,000mm

2.5 ~ 300mm

25 ~ 3,000mm

4 ~ 100mm

10D/5D

5D/2D

10D/5D

7D/3D

Not Required

Required

Required

Required

0.5 % of Rate

0.5 % of Rate

2.0 % of FS

1.0 ~ 3. 0 % of Rate

-32 to 32m/s

0 to 15m/s

0.3 to 4m/s

Temperature
Operating
Condition

Pressure

Bore
Installation
Condition

Upstream/Downstrea
m
Piping Works
Explosion Proof
Accuracy

Performance

Velocity Range

Flow Measurement Orientation

Flow Sensor Selection
Accuracy Vs Repeatability
Differential Pressure Flowmeters
Primary Element Options
Pitot Tubes
Variable Area Flowmeters
Mechanical Flowmeters
Positive displacement Flowmeters
Turbine Flowmeters
Other Rotary Flowmeters

Electronic Flowmeters
Magnetic Flowmeters
Vortex Flowmeters
Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Mass Flowmeters
Coriolis Flowmeters
Thermal Mass Flowmeters
Hot-wire Anemometers

Define Application Basic Facts

Flowing Media (Steam, Water, Air, Gas etc)
Density - pressure and temperature
Flow Range, minimum to maximum (turndown
needed)
Accuracy how stated? % of range or span
Repeatability
Straight run requirements & available
Economic Considerations Initial cost,
maintenance cost & operating costs

Why are we here?

There is no 1 meter that will meet every
application
Every application needs to be looked at
individually
We can make some generalizations !!!!!!

FLOW MEASUREMENT

HOW MUCH (TOTAL)

HOW FAST (RATE)

Flow Through A Pipe

Idealized

Real World

Pipe

Velocity Profile

Flow Profile Correlation

Steam
Water
Heavy Crude

Velocity profile is a predictable function of

Reynolds number. Fluids with the same
Reynolds number will have similar velocity
profiles.

General Flow Terminology

n

Reynolds Number (RE) A single dimensionless

parameter formed as the ratio of inertial to
viscous forces . Magnitude indicates whether
flow is laminar or turbulent

Fluid
Fluid Characteristic
Density Velocity Dimension*
Inertia Forces
(p)
(V)
(D)
RE=
=
Viscous Forces
Fluid Viscosity ( )

* Usually inside pipe diameter.

Characterization of Fluid Flow

Types of Flow
RE < 2100

Laminar

Transitional

RE >3000 Turbulent ***

*** Well documented & proven fully

developed flow profiles

Volumetric Flowrate (Q)

V
A

Volume = Area x Length

Volume Flow = Area x Velocity

Mass Flowrate (m)

Q=VA
Mass Flow m = Qp
= AV

V
A
m

Where m = Mass Flow

Q = Volume Flow
= Fluid Density
Mass = Volume x Density

Mass vs Volume Flowmeters

Why are we concerned?
How much does it really matter?
Flow through a 4 line measured in a Averaging Pitot
Flow Rate

1000 cfm

1000 cfm

Pressure

5 psi

5 psi

Temperature

100 F

70 F

DP in WC

12.181

11.532

There is a 6% error just by changing density /

temperature slightlycan you meter cope??

General Flow Terminology

Factors affecting flowmeter performance

Process media
Liquid
Gas

Temperature
Velocity

Density (Specific Gravity)

Viscosity
Pressure

Flowmeter Performance

n
n
n

Accuracy
Repeatability
Linearity
Rangeability

Types of Accuracy

n
n
n

% Rate
% Full Scale
% Span
% Max DP

Accuracy
% Rate

The percent accuracy value is constant and

applied to the actual (or indicated) flowrate
Flowrate
1% rate
1 GPM
Example: 100 GPM
50 GPM
0.5 GPM
10 GPM
.01 GPM

% Full Scale The absolute value of error (as expressed in

engineering units)
Flowrate
Example: 100 GPM
50 GPM
10 GPM

1% Full Scale
1 GPM
1 GPM
1 GPM

% Rate
1%
2%
10%

Accuracy
Percent Error Versus Flow

Poor Repeatability Means

Poor Accuracy
Good Accuracy Means
Good Repeatability
Good Repeatability Does Not
Necessarily Mean Good Accuracy

Volumetric Flowmeters

DP
Turbine
Vortex / Swirl
Magnetic
Target
Ultrasonic
Displacement

Note: can be inferred mass with compensating transmitter

Differential Pressure Flowmeters

Flow Measurement Principles
Q=K
ORIFICE PLATE
(or FLOW TUBE)

VENA
CONTRACTA

Direction of Flow

MANOMETER
(or DP TRANSMITTER)

DP Primary Elements

Various
Orifice
Configuration
Flow
Tube

Flow
Nozzle

Venturi
Flowmete

DP Primary Elements
Averaging Pitot

Accelabar
Combined Pitot &
Venturi

Wedge Element

Differential Pressure Flowmeters

DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE

ADVANTAGES
Use On Liquid, Gas, and Steam
Suitable for Extreme Temperatures and
Pressures
No Moving Parts
Low Cost

DISADVANTAGES
Limited Rangeability
Effected By Changes In Density,
Pressure, and Viscosity
Maintenance Intensive

Magnetic Flowmeters

Theory of Operation

Magmeter Requirements

n
n
n

Process must be a liquid

Minimum conductivity
Meter must be full

Magnetic Flowmeters
MAGNETIC

ADVANTAGES
No Moving Parts
Very Wide Rangeability
Ideal For Slurries

Unobstructed Flow Path

DISADVANTAGES
Liquid Must Be Conductive

Physical Pressure and Temperature

Limits

Magnetic Flowmeters
Advantages Over Other Technologies
n
n
n
n
n

n
n
n

No moving parts
No pressure drop
Flowrate independent of viscosity, temperature, and density
Minimum upstream piping requirements
Electronics interchangeable without regard to size
Measure dirty liquids with solids
Measure highly corrosive fluids
Very large turndown
Linear output

Vortex Meter

Vortex Meter
Principle of Operation
Q=VxA

Vortex

Vortex / Swirlmeter
VORTEX / SWIRLMETER
ADVANTAGES
No Moving Parts

For Liquid, Gas, or Steam

Uneffected by Pressure, Temperature, or
Density Changes.
Wide Rangeability

DISADVANTAGES
Span Limitations Due to Viscosity
Flow Profile Sensitive (Vortex)

Swirlmeter
Principle of Operation
Preamplifier
Housing

Swirler

Deswirler
Sensor
Backflow

r =
VA =
VT =
p =

local radius
axial velocity of flow
angular velocity of flow
static pressure

Swirlmeters

Benefits
High Accuracy 0.50% of Rate
No Moving Parts
Minimal Upstream Piping
Measures Low Flows
Versatile
Electronics can be used for Diagnostics
Works with Entrained Liquids

Swirlmeter
Cut-Away View

Technical Data
n Measures liquids, gases and steam
n Available integral, remote, or flow
computer electronics
n Accuracy 0.50% rate
n Sizes 0.75" thru 16.0"
n Minimal upstream piping req.
n Flow as low as 1 GPM
n Excellent in light gas applications

Installation Length
Swirlmeter
Swirlmeter

Vortex 4
Process
control valve

5D

1D

3D

1D

50 D

5D

25 D

5D

15 D

5D

90 elbow
min. 1.8 D

Reduction
3D

1D

Turbine Meter

Turbine Meter
Principle of Operation

Rotor velocity is proportional to fluid velocity

Turbine Meter
High accuracy (.5% of rate)
High rangeability (up to 50:1)
Compact design
Fast response time
Broad range of sizes
Clean water applications only
NIST Traceable Factory Calibration
Low cost, Easy to install
In and out of line, under pressure

Turbine Meter

Performance Considerations
Straight pipe run requirements
Process fluid lubricity
Reynolds number constraints
Viscosity
Density
Maintenance & recalibration

Turbine Flowmeters
TURBINE
ADVANTAGES
High Accuracy

Suitable for Extreme

Temperatures and Pressures
Can Be Used On Gas or Liquid

DISADVANTAGES
Only For Low Viscosities
Moving Parts
Sensitive to Flow Profile

Positive Displacement Flowmeters

PD Flowmeters

Types

Helical gear
Nutating disk
Oscillating
piston
Oval gear
Rotary

Positive Displacement Meter

Typical Principle of Operation

Schematic of a
Schematic of a
rotary-vane flowmeter
Schematic of a
nutating-disk meter
lobed-impeller flowme

PD Flowmeters

Advantages
Ideal for viscous fluids
Custody transfer
Batching
Minimal straight piping
requirements

Ultrasonic Flowmeters

Types

Doppler
Time of
flight

Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Principle of Operation

Doppler
Flowmeter

Ultrasonic Flowmeters
Principle of Operation

Transit-Time
Flowmeter

Ultrasonic Flowmeters

Performance Considerations
Reynolds number constraints
Entrained gas or particles for doppler
Clean liquids for time of flight
Installed without process shut down
Straight upstream piping
requirements

Ultrasonic
ULTRASONIC
ADVANTAGES
No Moving Parts

Unobstructed Flow Passage

Wide Rangeability

DISADVANTAGES

For Liquids Only (limited gas)

Flow Profile Dependent
Errors Due To Deposits

Mass Flowmeter
Direct Measurement

Thermal Dispersion
Coriolis

Coriolis Mass Flowmeter

Coriolis

Coriolis
CORIOLIS

ADVANTAGES
Direct Mass Measurement
High Accuracy
Additional Density Measurement

Uneffected By Flow Profile

DISADVANTAGES
High Purchase Price

High Installation Cost

Size Limitations
Vibration Sensitive

Thermal Dispersion

Thermal Dispersion Mass Flowmeter

Gas application only

Relatively inexpensive
Easy to install and remove under pressure
Accuracy 0.5%
Turndown, 100:1
Capable of monitoring extremely low flows
True mass flow meter (compensates for
temperature/pressure)

Piping Considerations
Always need a full pipe

Proper up / down diameter

BTU Monitoring

Summary Each Application is

Different
Flowing Media (eg Steam, Water, Air, Gas etc)
Density - pressure and temperature
Flow Range, minimum to maximum (turndown
needed)
Accuracy how stated? % of range or span
Repeatability
Straight run requirements & available
Maintenance and reliability

General HVAC Recommendations

Steam : Accelabar or Swirl

Chilled or Hot Water: Hot Tap Insert Turbine

Natural Gas or Air: Thermal Dispersion

Fuel Oil: Coriolis or Wedge