ASQ Annual Certificate scheme

for
Engineering Students
Detailed schedule
for
Session on Statistical Process Control

 Course Objective : To understand the concept of Statistical Process Control

Method
: Workshop
Assessment
: Quiz at the end of Workshop.

Date
: 19th October-2014
Venue
: Engg College , Bhavnagar
Timings
: 10-15 to 16-00 hours
Session Facilitators : Aresh Bhatnagar

 Session Agenda:
Agenda point

What is Statistical Process Control ?

Type of Data
Type of Variation and Activity
Break
History of SPC & Introduction of Control Charts
Variable Control Charts & Out of Control Conditions
Lunch Break

Attribute Control Charts

What is Process Capability
Tea Break
Process Capability Indices & Calculation
Difference Process Control & Capability
Small Quiz for Participants

Statistical Process Control

What is Statistics ?
Statistics is the science of learning from data, and of measuring, controlling, and
communicating uncertainty; and it thereby provides the navigation essential for controlling
the course of scientific and societal advances
What is Process ?
A series of actions or steps taken in order to achieve a particular end.

What is Control ?
Process control is an engineering discipline that deals with architectures,
mechanisms and algorithms for maintaining the output of a specific process within a
desired range.
For instance, the temperature of a chemical reactor may be controlled to maintain a
consistent product output

Variable Data

Attribute Data

Examples
Hospitals
timeliness and quickness of care, staff responses to requests, accuracy of lab tests, cleanliness,
courtesy, accuracy of paperwork, speed of admittance and checkouts
Airlines
flight delays, lost luggage and luggage handling, waiting time at ticket counters and check-in,
agent and flight attendant courtesy, accurate flight information, passenger cabin cleanliness and
maintenance

Fast-Food Restaurants
waiting time for service, customer complaints, cleanliness, food quality, order accuracy,
employee courtesy
Catalogue-Order Companies
order accuracy, operator knowledge and courtesy, packaging, delivery time, phone order waiting
time
Insurance Companies
billing accuracy, timeliness of claims processing, agent availability and response time

Basic Statistics

25

Frequency

20

15

10

0
98.50 98.99

99.00 99.49

99.50 99.99

100.00 100.49

Weight

100.49 100.99

101.00 101.49

101.50 101.99

USL

LSL

Variation in a
Transformation Process
Inputs
Facilities
Equipment
Materials
Energy
Employees

Transformation
Process

Outputs
Goods &
Services

Variation in inputs create variation in outputs

Variations in the transformation process create
variation in outputs

Types of Variations

1.

Random variation
Also called common cause variation
This type of variation is inherent in a process.
Caused by usual variations in equipment, tooling, employee actions, facility environment,
materials, measurement system, etc.
If random variation is excessive, the goods or services will not meet quality standards.
To reduce random variation, we must reduce variation in the inputs and the process
Random causes that we cannot identify Unavoidable
e.g. slight differences in process variables like diameter, weight, service time,
temperature

Types of Variations

2.

Non-random variation
Also called special cause variation or assignable cause variation
Caused by equipment out of adjustment, worn tooling, operator errors, poor training,
defective materials, measurement errors, etc.
The process is not behaving as it usually does.
The cause can and should be identified and corrected.
Assignable causes of variation
Causes can be identified and eliminated
e.g. poor employee training, worn tool, machine needing repair

Exercise 1

 A process is in control if it has no special cause variation.

The process is consistent or predictable.
SPC distinguishes between common cause and special cause variation

Measure characteristics of goods or services that are important to

customers
Make a control chart for each characteristic

The chart is used to determine whether the process is in control

Statistical Process Control (SPC)

monitoring process to detect and prevent
poor quality by using sampling method
UCL

Sample
subset of items produced to use for
inspection
Control Charts
process is within statistical control limits

LCL

SPC is a method to identify sources of Variation in order to minimize /

eliminate it

SPC is a Prevention Technique

Control Charts

Learning Objectives
Learn how control charts can be used to help establish a
measurement baseline for a process
Learn how control charts can be used to identify common
cause and special cause variation in a process
Learn which Shewhart control charts to use with different data
types
Learn how to use subgrouping as a method of improving the
usefulness of control charts

26

Control charts a brief history

Control charts have been around since the 1920s
Control charts came into heavy use during World War II
Dr. Shewhart of Bell Laboratories developed a theory of
variation that states there are two components to variation:
Common cause component, and
Special cause component

Dr. Shewhart is credited with the development of standard

control chart based on +/- 3 standard deviation limits to
separate common cause variation from special cause variation

28

Control charts
Control charts are one of the most commonly used tools in our
Lean Six Sigma toolbox
Control charts provide a graphical picture of the process over time
Control charts are both practical and easy-to-use
Control charts help us establish a measurement baseline from which we
can measure improvements

Control charts can be used in the following ways:

Help detect Special Cause Variation
Help establish and ensure Process Stability
Help detect Changes in the Process itself over time
Help Pinpoint Key Sources of Variation within the basic process

29

Types of Shewhart control charts

Proper use of control charts requires selecting a
control chart that fits the underlying data type
and distribution:
Continuous data: I-MR, Xbar-R, Xbar-S
Binomially distributed attribute data: P, NP
Poisson distributed attribute data: C, U

30

We need ways of interpreting data

Everyday, we are flooded by data and we are
forced to make decisions:
Plants output decreases by 4%
US trade deficit rises by $40 billion
Company Xs earnings are off $240 million from
previous quarter

Should we take action?

31

Four states of a process

Stable

In Spec

Out of Spec

Unstable

Stable process

Unstable process

100% conforming product

100% conforming product

Control Charts warn of

trouble and maintain
stability

Control Charts special causes present

opportunities for improvement. Elimination of
special causes makes process stable
ignoring special causes can cause process to
move out of spec

Stable process

Unstable process

Some non-conforming

Some non-conforming

Control Charts maintain

stable process

Control Charts special causes present

opportunities to improve process. Special
causes can mask process improvements

Need for change is apparent

32

Control chart selection tree

TYPE OF DATA

Count or Classification
(Attribute Data)

Measurement
(Variable Data)

Count

Classification

Defects or
Nonconformance

Defectives or
Nonconforming Units

Fixed
Opportunity

Variable
Opportunity

Fixed
Opportunity

Variable
Opportunity

Subgroup
Size of 1

Subgroup
Size < 8-10

Subgroup
Size > 8-10

C Chart

U Chart

NP Chart

P Chart

I-MR

Xbar & R

Xbar & S

34

Continuous control charts

Charts show both Central Tendency and
Variability
Chart Types
I-MR: Individuals Moving Range
Xbar-R: Subgroup Mean and Range
Xbar-S: Subgroup Mean and Standard Deviation

Charts primarily differentiated by Subgroup Size

35

Limits
Process and Control limits:

Statistical
Process limits are used for individual items
Control limits are used with averages
Limits = 3
Define usual (common causes) & unusual (special causes)

Specification limits:
Engineered
Limits = target tolerance
Define acceptable & unacceptable

Process vs. control limits

Distribution of averages
Control limits
Specification limits

Variance of averages < variance of individual items

Distribution of individuals
Process limits

X and R Chart (Average & Range Chart)

X and R Chart

1. Decide Subgroup Size

2. Decide Subgroup Frequency
- Decide change in the process over span of time
- For initial study, may be consecutive or a very short interval

2. Decide No. of Subgroups

- Generally 25 Subgroups of having minimum 100 individual measurements

X and R Chart

X and R Chart

X and R Chart

Process Shift

X-Bar and R chart exercise

44

Date

Shift

Ounces

Date

Shift

Ounces

9/14

(3)
(1)
(2)

3.15
3.25
3.15

9/18

(3)
(1)
(2)

3.15
3.35
3.25

9/15

(3)
(1)
(2)

3.35
3.25
3.15

9/19

(3)
(1)
(2)

3.45
3.15
3.55

9/16

(3)
(1)
(2)

3.15
3.45
3.95

9/20

(3)
(1)
(2)

3.15
3.15
3.45

9/17

(3)
(1)
(2)

3.35
3.35
3.55

9/21

(3)
(1)
(2)

3.15
3.35
3.35

Calculation of central line and

control limits on R chart

Calculation of central line and

control limits on X-Bar chart

Individual & Moving Range Chart

Individuals and moving range charts

Display variables data when the sample subgroup size is one
Variability shown as the difference between each data point
(i.e., moving range)
Appropriate Usage Situations:
When there are very few units produced relative to the opportunity for
process variables (sources of variation) to change
When there is little choice due to data scarcity
When a process drifts over time and needs to be monitored

I-MR is a good chart to start with when evaluating continuous

data

48

Recordable injuries I-MR chart (cont.)

What conclusions might we draw from the I-MR chart?
I-MR Chart of Recordable Injuries

Individual Value

U C L=17.17
16
14

_
X=12.75

12
10

LC L=8.33

10

12
14
O bser vation

16

18

20

22

24

6.0

Moving Range

U C L=5.436
4.5
3.0
1.5

__
M R=1.664

0.0

LC L=0
2

49

10

12
14
O bser vation

16

18

20

22

24

Process stability
Shewhart control charts are quite robust to normality so there is
no real need to worry whether the data is normal or not
To achieve process stability, we must reduce or eliminate
special cause variation
Special cause variation can take the form of either outliers or
trends and patterns in our time series data
Once we have reduced or eliminated special cause variation,
our process should exhibit a random, stable, and consistent
amount of common cause variation
The Western Electric Rules are a common method of
identifying special cause variation

50

Common vs. special cause

Special Cause Variation

Outliers
Trends
Patterns

51

Common Cause Variation

Random
Stable
Consistent

Western electric rules

1. One point beyond Zone A
Detects a shift in the mean, an increase in the
standard deviation, or a single aberration in the
process. For interpreting Test 1, the R chart can be
used to rule out increases in variation

2. Nine points in a row on the same side of the center line

Detects a shift in the process mean

3. Six points in a row steadily increasing or decreasing

Detects a trend or drift in the process mean. Small
trends will be signaled by this test before Test 1
52

Western electric rules (cont.)

4. Fourteen points in a row alternating up and down
Detects systematic effects, such as two alternately
used machines, vendors, or operators

5. Two out of three points in a row in Zone A or beyond

Detects a shift in the process average or increase in
the standard deviation. Any two out of three points
provide a positive test
6. Four out of five points in Zone B or beyond
Detects a shift in the process mean. Any four out of
five points provide a positive test

53

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Normal behavior. Process is in
control.

Figure S6.7
2011 Pearson Education,
Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

One plot out above (or below).
Investigate for cause. Process is
out of control.
Figure S6.7
2011 Pearson Education,
Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Trends in either direction, 5 plots.
Investigate for cause of
progressive change.
Figure S6.7
2011 Pearson Education,
Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Two plots very near lower (or
upper) control. Investigate for
cause.
Figure S6.7
2011 Pearson Education,
Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Run of 5 above (or below) central
line. Investigate for cause.

Figure S6.7
2011 Pearson Education,
Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Patterns in Control Charts

Upper control limit

Target

Lower control limit

Erratic behavior. Investigate.

Figure S6.7
2011 Pearson Education,
Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

Attribute Control Charts

Attribute charts control limits

p Chart

UCL p 3

CL p

p (1 p )
n

LCL p 3

p (1 p )
n

np Chart

CL

np

UCL

n p 3 n p(1 p)

LCL n p 3 n p(1 p)

c Chart

CL

UCL c 3 c

LCL c 3 c

UCL u 3 u / n

LCL u 3 u / n

u Chart

CL
61

u
uc
n

P-Chart example
Lean Six Sigma Pizza wishes to
monitor defective pizzas

P Chart of Defective Pizzas

0.05

0.04

Proportion

Each day for a month the cook

keeps a total of the number of
defective pizzas and also the total
number of pizzas

UCL=0.03689

0.03
_
P=0.01932

0.02

0.01
LCL=0.00174

0.00
1

10

13

16
19
Sample

Tests performed with unequal sample sizes

What are your thoughts around our defective pizzas?

Why are the control limits not constant?
62

22

25

28

31

Minitab P chart (cont.)

Note how the Control Limits change as Subgroup size changes
P Chart of Rejects
0.35

UCL=0.3324

0.30

Proportion

0.25
0.20

_
P=0.1685

0.15
0.10
0.05

LCL=0.0047

0.00
2

10
12
Sample

Tests performed with unequal sample sizes

63

14

16

18

20

Two big Control Chart errors

1. Putting specification limits on a Control Chart
Understanding how our process matches up against customer
requirements IS important to know. However, that kind of study is called a
process capability study

2. Treating UCL and LCL as a Specification Limit

When you do that, its just an inspection tool
Its no longer a Control Chart

UCL/LCL are not directly tied customer defects!

64