PRINCIPLES

AND
METHODS OF TEACHING
Prepared by:
MR. HEHERSON P. RAMOS

Teachers, like leaves, everywhere abound;

Efficient teachers, like fruit are rarely found.
* These lines from Pope are, today, untrue, for with good textbook,
any enterprising and imaginative teacher can be an efficient
teacher.

* A genuine desire to learn the techniques of teaching is essential

for the beginning teacher as well as for the teachers already in the
service who want to improve their competency, the philosophy
being that there are better and more feasible methods of gaining
desired results and that these methods are improved techniques
and procedures that can be learned.

 Principles and Methods of Teaching provides the teacher with a

ready reference for improved techniques, new trends, effective

approaches, and modern strategies.

No one method is foolproof. Rather, the earnest teacher will try

out as many methods as he can, constantly finding out for

himself which methods are best in his particular field of
specialization.

 The alert teacher should be receptive to modern practices; he

should welcome, not resist change. Each new idea he adopts

will enrich him professionally and experientially.

The effective teacher is not born. Teaching competence is

gained through hard work and a genuine desire to improve. -

Dr. A.S. Lardizabal

Chapter 1
THE TEACHER AND HIS PROFESSION

 A great deal has been said of teaching as one of the most

important professions from the standpoint of human welfare.

Properly understood, however, it is also one of the most

technical, difficult, and challenging professions.

 To know what makes a good teacher, one must know the task of

a teacher.
What is most important is the teachers personal influence in

promoting the development of basic skills, understanding, work

habits, desirable attitudes, value judgments, and adequate

personal adjustment of the learners.

 It can be said that teaching is effective to the extent that the

teacher acts in ways that are favorable to the development of a

desirable personality in the learner.

The task of a teacher is complex and many-sided and demands

a variety of human traits and abilities and competencies.

Characteristics of an Effective Teacher

 It refers to the teachers knowledge of general

subject matter to be taught, his understanding of

psychological and educational principles, and his

understanding and appreciation of the teaching

profession.

What are the Professional qualities of an effective

teacher?
1. Mastery of the subject field one teaches.

The first essential of effective teaching is that the

teacher must have a thorough grasp of the subject he
teaches.
This is contrary to the common notion that a
teacher does not have to know very much to teach
children.

Effective learning demands that the teacher

possess a solid knowledge of his subject field.
To master ones field is to keep on learning more
about it. A teacher cannot simply learn the rudiments of the
subject, master them thoroughly, and then stop.
If a teacher is to keep up with the newer

developments in his area, he has to continue to learn it.

It follows from this that if a teacher is to continue

learning about his subject matter, he must like it.

It is almost impossible for anyone to go on learning

anything he dislikes. As Highet writes: The teacher who

dislikes his subject or is indifferent to it always runs the
risk of becoming a hypocrite.

 2. Understanding of the learner.

A second essential of effective teaching is knowledge of

children.
This means understanding of the basic principles of human
growth and development.
If a teacher expects to guide learning effectively, he must

know how much children at various levels of maturity are capable

of understanding.

He must know their interests and previous experiences

which he can utilize in motivating them.

He must know the adjustments children have to make

at various stages of development, the physical, emotional,

and social problems they face in growing up. He must develop
the special skills needed in gathering information about
children.

It is not enough, however, for a teacher to know the

characteristics of children. Equally important is that he must
like them. One can be hardly be expected to stimulate
childrens growth if he does not find any satisfaction in
working with them.
Only a teacher who has a genuine and sincere love for
children can imbue them with love for learning.

3. Understanding of teaching principles and skill in the use of

techniques for their implementation.

The old notion that If a person knows his subject, he

can teach it is very much in error.

To promote learning effectively, a teacher must know
not only WHAT (subject matter) but also HOW (method) to
teach.

Hence, the third essential of effective teaching is skill

with teaching methods.
Teaching methods involve understanding of curriculum

theory and practice, the nature and principles of learning,

types of learning outcomes, and the psychology of motivation

and individual differences which are bases for selecting and

organizing learning experiences.

Teaching methods also involve skill in techniques of

facilitating purposeful learning:

* discussion
* questioning
* group work
* audio visual materials
* direct study

4. General Understanding of other branches of knowledge.

Present day teaching demands that a teacher possess

a general understanding of other branches of knowledge. If a
teacher expects to help children understand and appreciate
the world they live in, he must understand the interrelation and
interdependence of the various areas of knowledge. He must

be able to show how his subject field relates with other fields,
particularly in the solution of lifes problems.

Furthermore, children at present have wide range of

interest, background, experiences, and abilities.
A teacher, therefore, must be ready to cope with possible
questions children might raise relating to other fields of knowledge.

Though all branches of knowledge are important, special

emphasis is placed on the teachers communication skills.
Ability to communicate ideas effectively, to listen
intelligently, and to read critically are considered essential to
effective teaching.

5. Understanding and appreciation of the teaching profession.

The degree of a teachers success depends to a great

extent on his attitude toward his job
Teaching involves varied relationships among various
individuals. A teacher must know how to work effectively not only
with students but also with all other persons involved in the school

administrators, co-workers, parents, and other members of the

community.

He must be aware of the value of high ethical

professional relationships. (The Code of Ethics for
Professional Teachers, R.A. No. 7836/P.D. No. 223)
A teacher must understand the importance of his
profession as socially useful work and recognize its
satisfactions as well as its restrictions and trials.

He must be aware of the value of professional

organizations to himself and to education in general.

Lastly, he must be aware of the need for keeping

abreast with changes in education through various in service
education programs.

Personal qualities are so interrelated with professional

qualities

that it is quite hard to isolate them. Besides,

personal qualities are intangible and therefore difficult to

measure.
It relates to the teachers personality, interests,
attitudes, beliefs, and working relationships with pupils and
other individuals.

5 Aspects of Personality
1. Intellectual
2. Social
3. Physical
4. Emotional
5. Moral
It is generally believed that STUDENTS are the BEST judges

regarding such personal characteristics of teachers.

Among those rated highly are the following:

1. Pleasing personal appearance, manner, courtesy,

pleasant voice.
2. Intelligence, emotional stability, and self-control.
3. Sympathy, kindness, helpfulness, patience.
4. Integrity, trustworthiness, honesty, loyalty.
5. Flexibility, creativeness, resourcefulness

 6. Sociability, friendliness, cooperativeness.

7. Fairness, impartiality, tolerance.

8. Sense of humor, cheerfulness, enthusiasm.

The Teachers Job

Knowledge of the duties and responsibilities of a
teacher will help one realize why teaching is a complex and
many-sided task demanding a variety of traits and abilities.

 1. Understanding the learning process.

- The major task of a teacher is to promote learning. To

do this, he has to guide the learning process of children by
planning and organizing meaningful learning experiences,
creating a desirable learning environment, using a variety of
instructional materials, providing for individual differences, and

appraising pupil growth and development.

 2. Counseling and guidance.

- Counseling and guidance are not the responsibility of

the school guidance counselor alone. Every teacher shares in
this responsibility
- Because of his close contact with pupils, the teacher
is in the best position to know much about them their

interests, needs, difficulties, habits, attitudes, beliefs, and

aspirations.

3. Sponsoring extra-class activities.

- Extra-class activities are part of any school program.
These activities are considered important in contributing to the
development of children.
- Some of these activities are student organizations,
publications, athletics, speech, drama, and music.

- Sponsoring one or more of these activities is one of the

teachers duties.

4. Working with parents and the community.

- The community environment is an important factor in the
development of children. Todays teacher s expected to become familiar
with the community and to work with people to improve community
conditions.
- To perform this responsibility, the teacher interprets his work
and that of the school to parents by conferring with them about their
children at school or at home, cooperates actively in community
organizations, participates in community activities for social, economic,
and political improvement.

5. Professional responsibilities.
- The teacher has certain duties and responsibilities in
relation to his membership in the teaching profession. It is his
responsibility to improve himself by maintaining high standards of

personal and professional conduct and by continuing to grow

professionally.
- A teacher who truly loves his job takes pride in his
profession. Not for a moment does he lose faith in the
worthwhileness of teaching as a profession.

Preparation for Teaching

There are two types of teacher education:
1) pre service
*it is the college education needed to become a
teacher.
2) in service

*is any activity pursued by one already teaching for

purposes of professional development and advancement

 PRE SERVICE EDUCATION

- To help prospective teachers develop the qualities

considered essential to effective teaching, the curriculum of any
teacher-training institution is compose of three basic areas:
1) subject matter education
2) general education
3) professional education

** In the Subject Matter Education courses, the prospective teacher

masters the field or fields of knowledge which he chooses to teach.
** In the General Education courses he studies different areas of
knowledge outside of his special subject field. He gets a broader outlook
of his specialized field.
** In the Professional Education courses the prospective teacher gets to
know and understand the educational and psychological bases of the

teaching-learning process as well as the methods and techniques of

teaching.

 IN- SERVICE EDUCATION

In the Philippines the most common in-service activities are:

1.

Faculty and departmental meetings, and individual and group

conferences with principals and/or supervisors.

2.

Attendance at lectures, seminars, and workshops.

3.

Study groups, professional readings.

4.

Visitation of other classes, pre-school conferences.

5.

Conventions and conferences, local or national.

6.

Membership in professional organizations.

7.

Graduate studies.

The Ethics of the Teaching Profession

Teaching is a profession. One of the responsibilities of the

teacher then is to maintain a high standard of personal and

professional conduct.
In any profession, such rules of conduct are collectively

known as the code of professional ethics

 What then should comprise the qualities of teachers in the

New Society?
DEC Memorandum 32, s. 1972, enumerates the attributes

of teachers:
A. Personal Attributes
B. Professional Responsibilities
C. Social Responsibilities

 A. Personal Attributes. The teachers obligation to himself

as a person:
1. The teacher believes in himself, in his ability to realize his

personal ideals and aspirations in life.

2.He believes firmly in the ideals of the New Society and

attempts in every way to be worthy of such ideals.

3. He lives and leads by example and follows what he

himself preaches.

 4. He is clean and healthy in body, mind, and spirit.

5. He maintains personal discipline strictly.
6. He is thoroughly honest ad practices integrity and

fairness in all his dealings with others.

7. He is abiding faith in the Almighty and loves his

fellowmen.

 B. PROFESSIONAL RESPONSIBILITIES
1. Relationship with superior
a. The teacher respects his superiors and is loyal to them.
b.

He accepts constructive suggestions meant to effect

improvement in the service.

c. He contributes his own suggestions to improve the school

program
d. He performs his work diligently and with dedication

 e. He believes infinitely that his official time be devoted fully,

faithfully, and honestly to the accomplishment of his official

functions and responsibilities.

2. Relationship with his peers

a. The teacher maintains wholesome and cordial relations

with his fellow teachers

b. He refrains from gossip and unbridled talk derogatory to

the honor and dignity of his co-teachers.

 c. He cooperates and shares in the successful outcome of

teachers enterprise.

3. Responsibilities in relation to the teachers wards

a. The teacher possesses a strong and abiding faith in the
potentialities and capabilities of young people for development.

b. He guides every student to develop his potentiality to the

utmost.

 c. He instills in his pupils personal and national discipline, respect

for authority, and love of country.

d. He maintains an open mind to innovations and changes.
e. He sees to it that his wards are God-fearing, civic spirited, and

law-abiding.
f. He develops in his pupils love for work.
g. The teacher deals honestly and fairly with every child in his

care. He shows justice, impartiality, and lack of prejudice; in a

word, he shows no favoritism among his wards.

 4. Responsibility to his profession

a. The teacher performs his duties and responsibilities in the best

traditions of the service.

b. He believes that education is a lifelong process and that it is not

obtained only in books and in the classroom but also in the

immediate environment.
c. He maintains an open mind in the classroom.
d. He continues to grow professionally.

 e. He shows pride in his work and believes firmly that teaching is a

noble profession.
f. He espouses causes that redound to the welfare of the

profession and of the people in general.

g. He joins and supports legitimate organizations.
h. He does his work diligently and devotedly.

 C. SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITIES
1. Relationship with government officials and community

leaders.
a. The teacher respects government officials and community

leaders and cooperates with them at every opportunity.

b. He maintains a sound and cordial relation with town officials and

leaders.
c. He tries to get the officials and leaders interested in the affairs

of the school and involved in school activities.

 d. He develop in his pupils respect for official authority and makes

them understand and appreciate the good things officials and

leaders do for the community.
e. He enthusiastically participates in community enterprises for

social, economic, and political improvement.

2. Relationship with the parents

a. The teacher keeps continuous contact with parents to inform

them about school activities and appraises them of their
childrens progress in school.

 b. He maintains a cordial relationship with the parents.

c. He consults with parents about pupils problems.

d. He stimulates parents interest in school and gets them involved in the

school enterprises.

3. Relationship with the public

a. The teacher works as a public relations officer of the school.

b. He maintains at all times an upright, blameless personality to set an

example to his wards and the public. His exemplary behavior is the
recognition and assurance of the parents confidence in him as the
best teacher for their children.

 4. Responsibilities as a family member

a. The teacher maintains family solidarity at all costs.

b. He produces, is economy wise, and contributes his share in

the financial support of the family.

c. He leads a morally upright life to maintain the respect and

blessings due his family.

Chapter 2
METHODOLOGY
The New Society makes imperative the reorientation of certain

aspects of Philippine education. One of these areas where reform is

needed is in teaching methodology and evaluative techniques.
Department Order no. 6, s. 1973, dated February 21, 1973, provides

that in order to contribute to the development of the New Society,

there is a need to upgrade and revise teaching methodology to make

it more productive of results particularly in achieving changes in

attitudes and values which must be reflected in a marked change in
conduct and behavior of the products of our schools.

 Place of Method in the Educative Process

In the educative process the three most important factors

are the CHILD, the TEACHER, and the SUBJECT

MATTER.

Take away one of the factors and it is doubtful if there

can be any education.

 The CHILD who is to be educated is considered the most

important factor.
The TEACHER is necessary to guide him in the educative

process. Without the TEACHER, the child may learn the

wrong things or the learn improperly. He has to acquire
knowledge and information through subject matter. The

teacher sifts the subject matter and decides what is to be

taught to the child.

 Transmission of SUBJECT MATTER from the teacher to the

child is done though METHOD. By means of method, the

child is guided as to what parts of subject matter to
appreciate and what attitudes to develop.

Also through METHOD, the child acquires habits, rote

associations, and skills. In the final analysis, the outcomes

of education are acquired through method.

 Importance of Method

Control of routine factors, mastery of the environment,

getting the attention of the class, maintaining discipline

while teaching these are just a few of the things the young
teacher has to attend to. He may master the subject matter,
but his problem is how to get the children to learn it.

 Doing things by trial and error is a waste of time and is

expensive in more ways than one.

In cooking food the housewife follows a method or recipe;

otherwise, the food may be ruined.

The farmer follows an accepted planting method or he may

not get a good harvest.

The carpenter follows a method or he may not turn out good

work.

 The salesman follows a method in selling his wares.

Like all these people, the TEACHER must follow a

METHOD if he expects to succeed.

 The word Method comes from the Greek methodos, which

in turn come from two Greek words: meta (after) and hados
(way).
The dictionary defines it as general or established way of

doing anything or the means or manner by which it is

presented or taught. (Charles Earle Funk)

 A series of related and progressive acts performed by a

teacher and students to achieve the objectives of the

lesson. (Dr. Marcela J. Leus)

 Methods makes learning easier.

Method also links the child and society.
By means of the classroom method used, the childs personality

unfolds and he learns to adjust to his surroundings. The

attitudes, character traits, and emotions desirable to society are
developed and he learns restraint and self-control.

 In group work, a child learns to cooperate with others.

Dividing the class into committees gives children

opportunities to develop their interests.

The sharing period teaches children to give and take.
The Inductive method educates the child to think logically.
The Deductive method educates the child to postpone

judgment until further verification.

 The traditional concept of method placed more emphasis on

the HOW.
Todays newer and broader concept of method places more

stress on the WHY rather than on the how, in line with

suggested reforms in teaching methodology which advocate
adoption of more and more teaching strategies that are

inquiry and problem oriented in order to develop the ability

to think, rationalize, and make proper decisions.

Factors That Determine Method

With changing educational goals, the choice of method becomes

important. How is a teacher to decide what method he is to use?

The following factors help determine this:
1. The educational objective and the aim of the lesson.
2. Nature of the subject matter or the lesson.
3. The nature of the learners.

4. School equipment and facilities.

5. The teacher.

 1. The educational objective and the aim of the lesson.

* if the aim of the lesson is to make certain responses

automatic, the drill method would be the most appropriate.
* if the teacher wants to arouse certain feelings and
attitudes, the appreciation lesson would be the most suitable.
* if training in logical thinking is what the teacher
desires, then problem method should perhaps be used.

 2. Nature of the subject matter or the lesson.

* Different types of subjects and different types of

lessons call for different methods.
* Take arithmetic and literature. The methods most
often used in the teaching arithmetic will not be the ones
primarily used in teaching of literature.

 3. The nature of the learners.

* Since the child is considered the center of the

educative process, method must be suited to him. His age,
grade, maturity, ability, interests, needs, experience, health,

and growth must be considered.

* The lecture method may be satisfactory in college

where students have a longer attention span, but it has no

place in the grades nor in the high school.

 4. School equipment and facilities.

* Some schools have modern equipment and facilities,

such as audio-visual rooms, projectors, TV, radio, laboratory

rooms, music rooms with pianos, a gymnasium, a well

equipped library and laboratories, and plenty of teaching aids.
5. The teacher.
* They may prefer certain methods over others and use
these more often.

* Some teachers are more at home with the traditional

methods while a number favor the modern ones.

* It does not really matter what method the teacher
uses provided he gets results in the shortest time possible.
He must master the method, however, and he must know
the principles, the steps, and the techniques to use.

Distinctions among METHOD, DEVICE, &

TECHNIQUE
A teacher should make good use of teaching devices or

materials. A device is a little method It is a teaching aid or

a tool to facilitate instruction. It is any means, usually
concrete, used to make the teaching clearer, more
meaningful, and more interesting.
Pictures, flash cards, and objects are examples of devices.

 The teachers procedure comprises the method of teaching.

Teaching method is a systematic way of doing something. It

implies an orderly logical arrangement of steps. It is more

procedural.
Technique refers to the art or skill of performance.
How well the teacher tells the story depends on techniques such

as using actions and gestures, changing facial expression to

depict different characters, varying voice pitch, tempo and
timbre.

 Teaching Technique is a well-defined procedure used to

accomplish a specific activity or task. It is a teachers particular

style or trick used to accomplish an immediate objective. More
than one technique may be available for accomplishing a
specific activity or task. (Corpuz, et.al)

 Two teachers may use the same method and devices in

teaching the same subject matter, but they may differ in

technique.

All teaching methods can be classified into two, namely

DEDUCTIVE and INDUCTIVE METHODS. (Corpuz, et.al)

 Deductive Method is also referred to as direct instruction.

* The teacher tells or shows directly what he/she want to

teach.
Inductive Method is also referred to as indirect instruction.

* The opposite of direct or deductive method

Characteristics of a Good Method

Is there a typical or ideal method that will be good for any

subject, any class of students, any age?

Method cannot be standardized simply because children do not

belong to the same mold.

Perhaps there should be as many methods as there are

individual differences among children.

There is no single best method, but there are many good

methods

A Teaching Method is Good if:

1. It makes use of the principles of learning and permits the

operation of these principles such as readiness, exercise, and

effect as provided for.
2. It utilizes the principle of learning by doing
3. It provides for individual differences. A method should be

flexible enough to serve the bright, the average, and slow

learners. There should be provision for meeting different needs,
interests, aptitudes, and emotional maturity.

 4. It stimulates thinking and reasoning.

5. It provides for growth and development. Students should

grow in knowledge and ideas; in habits, skills, and abilities;

in attitudes and sentiments.

Influence of Differing Schools of Thoughts on Method

Objectives

The Teacher

The Curriculum

-Traditional
school is subject
centered

-Because certain
definite
accomplishments
are expected of
the students, the
teacher must be
methodical and
plan lessons
logically.

-Aims to develop
the whole child
through
developmental
methods and
activities such as
field trips,
dramatic play,
discussion
periods, and
other activity
programs.

-It emphasizes
the 3Rs.
-Acquaints
children with
cultural heritage
of the race &
inculcate traits
such as
industry,patience,
perseverance,res
ponsibility,selfsacrifice,courtesy
,honesty.

-In the traditional

school, the
emphasis is on
the instructional
function of the
teacher, resulting
in early
intellectual
development of
children.

Discipline
-In the traditional
school, the
teacher enforces
strict discipline.
-he injects fear in
the classroom to
maintain the
silence that is
conducive to
learning &
communications
among students.

Methods
-Influenced by its
objectives, the
teachers role,
curriculum, and
discipline.
-Traditional
school makes
use mostly of
time-tested
methods
-Progressive
school, the new
strategies.

Objectives
-The progressive
school is child
centered & aims
at
the
full
development of
the child-socially,
emotionally, and
mentally.
-Provides varied
and rich learning
experiences to
suit the needs,
abilities,
&
interests of all
children
-develops
the
childrens
feelings of worth
& dignity

The Teacher
In
the
progressive
school,
the
teacher plays a
variety of roles,
with emphasis on
the
guidance
counselor
function.

The Curriculum

-Because many
kinds of students
constitute
the
class,
the
teacher has to
use a variety of
methods, such
as
experimentation,
committee study,
-Acts as big problem solving,
brother or sister, and
individual
an
assistant, reports.
rather
an
instructor
-child centered &
individual differ

Discipline
-An attitude of
passivity
develops,
and
once in a while,
rebellion erupts.
However, good
work
habits
results.
-In
the
progressive
school,
the
approach
to
discipline
is
preventive rather
than remedial, by
action rather by
precept.

Methods

Objectives

The Teacher
In the
progressive
school, the
classroom is not
only for study; it
is a place for
work and play, to
live and learn it.

The Curriculum

Discipline
-Self discipline is
developed in the
students.
-No students is
condemned or
rejected.
-He is instead
praised for little
achievements,
encouraged to
perform services
for others, and
guided to work at
his own pace.

Methods

Summary:
Methods refers to the teachers systematic procedure of

getting the lesson across to the child. Method facilitates

learning and its considered effective if it
1) makes use of the principles of learning
2) utilizes self-activity

3) considers individual differences

4) stimulates thinking

 5) provides for growth and development.

Choice of method is determined by:

1) objectives

2) subject matter

3) learner

4) facilities

5) teacher

 Methods may be classified as old or new, which in turn are

influenced by the conservative or progressive school.

 We learn by example and by direct experience because

there are limits to the adequacy of verbal instruction.
- Malcolm Gladwell

Focus Question:
What are some guiding principles in the selection

and use of instructional materials?

How should these materials be used for learning to

the maximum and optimum?

Introduction:

There is no drab lesson if appropriate media is used

in its presentation. Properly selected and used, its

impact on the attention, sustained interest,
participation of students has long been recognized
to a point that this wide collection of teaching tools
earned the title sub-strategies.
It is not surprising to see these materials, devices
and instruments accumulated in every teachers
storehouse.

 Instructional materials enhance the effectiveness

of teaching strategy.

Instructional material no matter how good cannot

replace the good teacher.

PRINCIPLES
For optimum learning, let us observe the
following general principles in the use of instructional
materials (Ims).

1. All instructional materials are aids to

instruction. They do not replace the teacher.

2. Choose the instructional material that best suits

your instructional objectives.
Decide what you want to accomplish and then
employ the tools that are most likely to achieve
results. Do not let the media that is available to you
determine how or what you will teach.

3. If possible, use a variety of tools.

Using videos, computers, overheads and the
chalkboard not only keeps students interest but also

responds to the needs of those who receive

information in different ways.

4. Check out your instructional materials before

class starts to be sure it is working properly.
Nothing is more frustrating to you or to your

students in the process of instruction than to find that

the overhead projector or the LCD, for instance, does

not work in the process of instruction.

 Instructional

objectives serve as basis in the

selection of instructional material and not

availability of instructional material.

5. For results, abide by the general utilization guide

on the use of media:
Learn on how to use the instructional material.
Before using it, make sure you know how to manipulate it
to obtain the desired product. Listen to the record or view
the film ahead. Check the correct size and complete parts
are real objects, photographs or models to be presented.

Prepare introductory remarks, question or initial

comments you may need.

Provide a conducive environment. Arrange the

chairs, tables and the equipment and materials.
Provide sufficient lighting and ventilation.

Explain the objectives of the lesson.

Stress what is to be watched or listened to carefully.

State what they will be expected to do with the

information they will learn. Discussion or a test may follow.

There is a need to summarize or review the

experience. Prepare measures that can assess their
gains based on the objectives.

The use of a variety of tools is a come-on in

the teaching learning process.

There is no substitute for preparation. Check

your instructional material before use.

Forms Various of Media

Audio recording
Overhead Transparencies and Projectors
Bulletin Boards
Chalkboards
Charts

Realias (latin realis-actual, true and material)

- Mock ups ( a layout of printed matter)

- Films
- Models
- Pictures
- Books
- Electronic materials

Assessment of Learning

If the result of the pudding is in the eating, then

the proof of learning is results obtained from
assessing.

Focus Questions:
What

are some guiding principles in the

assessment of learning?
What are the implications of these in the teaching-

learning process?
What assessment tools are appropriate prior, during,

and after instruction?

Introduction:
The teaching cycle is not complete without the
assessment of learning.

Guiding Principles in the Assessment of Learning

1. Assessment of learning is an integral part of the

teaching learning process.

* We teach with a certain objective to attain. After we
have taught, then it is logical that we find out how well we
have attained our lesson objective, thus we engage ourselves

in the process of assessment. Assessment obviously is a sine

qua non of teaching.

What we do after we have taught is determined by the

assessment results that we get after teaching. Shall we do corrective
measures like remedial instruction? Or shall we proceed to teach the

next competency? The answers to these questions depend on the

assessment results. If our lesson objective has been attained then we
proceed to teach the next competency. If not, then we find out why it

has not been attained then resort to a corrective measure after which
we assess learning once again.
If assessment or evaluation is built into the teaching learning

process, students allergy to tests may be cured because it becomes

very common and natural to them.

2. Assessment tool should match with performance

objective.
* If our assessment tool is aligned with our
performance objective, we can claim our assessment tool

to be valid. In the concrete, this means that if we want to

teach our students how to dance the cha-cha, and we

want find out in the end if they are now able to dance the
cha-cha, we simply play the music and see them dance it.

Our performance

test is aligned with our

performance objective, therefore, it is valid.

assessment tools, say a written test, measure

only simple recall and comprehension.

Other than written and performance tests as

assessment methodologies, is product assessment

classified into written and physical. (Danielson, 2002)

According to Danielson examples of written products are:

term papers
short play
laboratory report
newspaper articles
letters to public officials

Physical Products are:

dioramas
sculptures

photographs

3. The results of assessment must be fed back to the

learners.
*If the main purpose of the assessment is to find
how well the learner has attained a particular learning
objective, it goes without saying that the assessment
process serves its purpose only when we return
corrected quizzes, tests, seat works, assignments,
and evaluated projects at the soonest time possible.

4. In assessing learning, teachers must consider

learners, learning styles and multiple intelligences
and so must come up with a variety of ways of
assessing learning.
* verbal-linguistic intelligence
* logical-mathematical intelligence
* spatial intelligence
* bodily-kinesthetic
* musical intelligence

* interpersonal intelligence
* intrapersonal intelligence
(Gardners Multiple Intelligence)
* naturalist intelligence
* existential intelligence
(added by Corpuz, et al.)
These learning styles and multiple intelligences
are considered In our assessment activities if they are
integrated in our assessment activities themselves.

We may not be able to integrate all learning styles

and multiple intelligences in one assessment of activity
but we can do is to strive to take into consideration as
many learning styles and multiple intelligences as

possible.
The traditional

assessment practice of giving

written test is quite inadequate. We need to introduce

other techniques

5. To contribute to the building of the culture of

success in the school, it is pedagogically sound that in

our assessment techniques we give some positive

feedback along with not so good ones.

nicely put, well done, fine idea, good point

on students papers boost their ego and add to their

level of confidence.

6. Emphasize on self-assessment.
If our pupil or students make learning objectives
their own, it is but fitting and proper that in the

assessment stage they do their self-assessment

against the standard or criterion of success

established at the beginning of the class in the

performance objective.

Furthermore, if learning is a personal process, then

the pupil or student is in the best position to measure
his/her own progress against the benchmark.
Our students self-assessment coupled with our
objectives assessment may give a more complete and
adequate picture of how far or close they are to
established criterion of success.

Assessment should not force students to

compete against one another ; any competition should
be

between

students

and

their

own

prior

performance. (Danielson, 2002)

Self-assessment is also termed as assessment

as learning.

7. If we believe that our task as teachers is to teach all

pupils/students, and that it is possible that all students,
even those that from limited backgrounds, will have
access to opportunities and therefore can achieve,
then the bell curve mentality must be abandoned.
If we insist on the bell curve mentality we will be
made to think that it is normal and is expected if some
fail.

This thinking will make us complacent. If some

pupils/students fail, we have a ready excuse. IT IS

NORMAL ANYWAY. Some are really expected to fail.

Remember, we wish to build the culture of

success in the classroom because success breeds

success. Concentrate on the thought that all can

learn.

8. Assessment of learning should never be used as

punishment or as a disciplinary measure.
We hear of teachers who give an unscheduled quiz
because the class is noisy or teachers who give a very

difficult test in order to punish students who do not study.

When we resort to this sort of practice, we veer

away from the true purpose of assessment, i.e. to validate

learning.

We also contribute in a sense to the

development of students who frown on any form of

learning assessment for this gets identified with

punishment.

9. Results of learning assessment must be communicated

regularly and clearly to parents.
Parents are keenly interested in the progress of
their children in school. They like to know how their

children are doing in school and how they can help their
children learn. Besides, parents are also our customers

and more than that, our partners in the education of the

young.

10. Emphasize on real world application that favors

realistic performances over out-of-context drill items.
Such assessments require students to

generate rather than choose a response, and to

actively accomplish complex tasks while bringing to

bear prior knowledge new learning and relevant

skills.

The evaluation or assessment of learning is an

integral part of the lesson plan and that this can be done
while we are still in the process of teaching or at the end
of our teaching. There are many ways of assessing
learning. The choice is ours in consideration of our
instructional objective, nature of topic and intelligences
and learning styles of our pupils/ students.

11. To ensure learning, do formative assessment.

Do not wait until the end of the chapter or unit to
check if your students understood the lesson. While you
are in the process of teaching, check for understanding. If
you do discover that your students failed to understand
the lesson, then by all means come up with an

intervention or remedial measure. This will endure

learning.

12. To ensure reliability of assessment results, make

use of multiple sources.

Dont rely on just one source of assessment

data. Make use of multiple sources written tests,

performance tests, portfolios, and observations.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
One of the most important roles that the teachers

play is that of a classroom manager. Effective teaching

and learning cannot take place in a poorly managed

classroom. When chaos becomes the norm, both

teachers and students suffer. In contrast, a well managed

classroom provides an environment in which teaching and

learning can flourish.

But a well-managed classroom does not just

come out from nowhere. It takes a good deal of effort
to create that conducive classroom climate. The
person who is the most responsible for creating it is
the TEACHER.

GUIDING PRINCIPLES IN CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

Classroom management is not teaching; it is a necessary condition to teaching

1. Consistent, proactive disciplines is the crux of effective

classroom management.
Prevention is better than cure, so goes the adage.
If we are proactive in our approach to discipline we
prevent unnecessary disciplinary problems from cropping
up. In short, let us anticipate potential problems and nip
them in the bud.

2. Establish routines for all daily tasks and needs.

Routinized collection of assignments, passing of
papers, and preparation for experiments saves a lot of
time and effort.
According

to

Doyles,

routinization

makes

classroom activities less susceptible to breakdowns and

interruptions because students know the normal

sequence of events and what is expected of them.

3. Orchestrate smooth transitions and continuity of

momentum throughout the day.
Smooth transitions and continuity of momentum

throughout the day ensure us that every instructional

moment is made use of wisely. No unnecessary lull is

created that will breed classroom restlessness, which

is the father of disciplinary problems.

4. Strike a balance between variety and challenge in

students activities.
A variety of student activities will ensure that

students multiple intelligences and varied learning styles

are considered in the conduct of student activities.
* Strike the golden mean between extremely easy
and extremely difficult activities.*

5. As classroom manager, be aware of all actions and

activities in the classroom.
Our heightened awareness of everything that is
happening in our classroom puts our pupils and students

on their toes all the time. This is what Kounin calls with-itness.
Our visibility in and outside the classroom may
serve as a deterrent in the outbreak of untoward students
behavior.

6. Resolve minor inattention and disruption before

they become major disruptions.
The old adage a stitch on time saves nine

aptly applies here. We have not to wait until our class

is out of control. Misdemeanor has a ripple effect if

not checked early.

*Respond to inappropriate behavior promptly.

7. Reinforce positive behavior.

Be generous with genuine praise. Some
teachers are quite stingy with praise.
These are the teachers who think will become
less when they praise others.
They have the so-called SUBTRACTION
MENTALITY.

Other teachers are overgenerous with their

praise. Their praises overflow so much that they give
praise even when it is not appropriate.
For our praise to be GENUINE it must be given
according to merit. It is our way of appreciating and
recognizing hard work and good behavior.

8. Treat minor distubances calmly. (Ornstein, 1990).

Do not make a mountain out of a mole. If a
stern look or gesture can kill the inappropriate

behavior so be it. Thats the end period! Let us not

make a fuss about it.

9. Work out a physical arrangement of chairs that

facilitates an interactive teaching-learning process.
There is no doubt that external environment
affects us. The most common arrangement of tables
and chair in the classroom is one where the teachers
table and chairs are infront and the students desk or
chairs are arranged in rows facing the teacher.

This seat arrangement does not always

enhance interaction among students. Let us work for a

flexible seating arrangement where we can re-arrange

seats or desk to suit our learning needs and

conditions.

10. Make good use of every instructional moment.

Minimize discipline time to maximize instructional

time.